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November 8, 2011

To Sniff Or Not To Sniff

All of us are aware of the five senses: hearing, touch, sight, taste and smell, but so often is smell taken for granted. You are constantly seeing, touching and hearing something, but it is unlikely that you�??re constantly smelling a new smell (taste relies upon smell) and therefore this sense is thought of as unimportant in observing your surroundings. However, the fact that smell usually needs to be consciously activated may make this sense even more specialized. To initiate smelling, one must sniff, usually a faster inhalation of air, which allows for odor molecules to reach odor receptors within the nose. By doing this, it is even possible to regulate the amount of molecules that reach these receptors, such as by increasing either the time, or amplitude of said sniff. It is even theorized that the simple act of sniffing, as opposed to regular breathing patterns, activates olfactory receptors within the nose which are not normally active at all times.
This specialized system of respiratory inhalation in order to smell has further differentiated humans from other animals and may lead to an evolutionary advantage. We have the ability to breathe without consciously smelling. This is partially due to the fact that our olfactory receptors are only activated due to increases in length and amplitude of inhalation, but this is not to say that some pervasive smells don�??t force these receptors to react to their presence. This is usually because new smells are compared to those in the background, and therefore odors significantly different from pre-existing scents in the environment. However, animals such as rats are unable to differentiate the unimportant background smells and must constantly smell every molecule that passes their nose. Further specialization of human olfactory systems have allowed us to smell not only upon inhalation but also during exhalation. While the thought that we can discern our own scent of exhalation, this ability is what allows for much of our sense of taste. Taste is almost entirely due to our ability to smell food as we eat it. This is due to the fact that smells travel up the back of the throat and can then affect olfactory sensors. Without this ability, it is unlikely that rats would have a similar sense of taste. This specialized respiration also seems to help evolutionarily, as humans are able to ignore unimportant scents, and concentrate specifically on those which are entirely different to our current surroundings.
There is even evidence that the continued act of sniffing increases the size of dendritic spines and overall synapses in conjunction with olfactory receptors. This increase can lead to a superior ability to smell in the long run.
Smell is an important sense. Without the ability to smell, we wouldn�??t be able to taste, or to use important environmental clues to better survive. These clues can be as simple as an acrid smell, alerting one to a noxious contaminant or even a sweet, sugary smell of fruit, which indicates a food which we can eat without being poisoned.

- All in a Sniff, Published in Neuron, found at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MiamiImageURL&_cid=272195&_user=918210&_pii=S0896627311007859&_check=y&_origin=gateway&_coverDate=22-Sep-2011&view=c&wchp=dGLzVlk-zSkWz&md5=9a1a4cb0c581b40b58f5787b7c26e1ff/1-s2.0-S0896627311007859-main.pdf

Posted by

Rachel N. at 12:46 AM MST

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November 6, 2011

Hypocretin: A Potential Remedy for Narcolepsy and Depression

Energy drinks have taken the general public by storm; in fact, last year marked a $10 billion revenue generated from the energy drink market. Today, nearly every grocery store and gas station is stocked with the likes of Rockstar, Monster, Red Bull, and 5 Hour Energy, to name a few. From the frantic college student cramming in the wee hours of morning for the approaching exam to high-level execs trying to squeeze out a few more hours to complete a business strategy, energy drinks have found their stead among thousands striving to increase productivity. Hence, it comes as much needed news that scientists may have discovered cells responsible for arousal. Interestingly, these cells may also affect depressive states.

A recent study in the Journal of Neuroscience by Ronald McGregor et. al (http://www.jneurosci.org/content/31/43/15455.abstract) analyzes the role of Hypocretin (Hcrt) neurons in arousal and performance of operant tasks in mice. Several research precedents have shown that dysfunction/lesioning of Hcrt neurons produces narcolepsy, while administration of Hcrt results in arousal effects. However, no studies have examined the dependency of Hcrt neuron activity on the nature of the operant task being performed, and the diurnal phase (light or dark) during performance. To address this issue, McGregor et. al examined arousal and Hcrt neuron activity in Hcrt-knockout (KO) and wild-type (WT) mice as they performed operant tasks in both light and dark phases.

A variety of positive and negative reinforcement behavioral tasks were assessed. Positive reinforcement tasks consisted of mice in operant conditioning cages that pressed a lever for the administration of a food pellet. After each reward, the number of lever presses required to issue the food pellet was increased by one to get the successive pellet. A similar regimen was used for the self-administration of water as well. Control experiments were conducted with expected and unexpected food outcomes, whereby mice received a food pellet each time they pushed the lever or were unexpectedly given ample food, respectively. Negative reinforcement tasks consisted of shock avoidance. All of these behavioral tasks were conducted in two phases: light and dark. Arousal was measured using EEG and EMG, and Hcrt/Fos expression was examined in lateral, medial, and perifornical hypothalamic tissues (where Hcrt neurons are located) using immunohistochemistry staining.

Interestingly, the results show that Hcrt neurons only affect performance on positive reinforcement tasks. During positive reinforcement tasks, KO mice exhibited "pauses" whereby they assumed crouched positions that prevented lever pressing. EEG readings show that this state was most similar to non-REM sleep, and likely represents a state of lingering drowsiness. EMG readings reveal partial but not complete muscle atonia, as is characteristic of REM sleep, again supporting the conclusion that KO mice were unable to perform the task due to severe drowsiness as is often seen in narcoleptics. Interestingly, KO mice exhibited dramatically improved performance on operant tasks conducted in the dark relative to those in the light, indicating that Hcrt-depletion is light dependent as well! This is further confirmed by Hcrt/Fos staining, which revealed increased expression in Hcrt neurons during light phases but basal levels during dark phases. Taken together, these results suggest that Hcrt-neurons cause arousal when waking from sleep in the morning (onset of light phase) and motivate performance on positive reinforcement tasks.

The symptoms of the KO mice described closely resemble that of a narcoleptic; severe drowsiness during the day (light phase), and reduced performance on positive reinforcement tasks. The latter has been closely linked to the common occurrence of depression in narcoleptics. A study by Henriques and Davidson (2000) reported that depressed patients worked as hard as controls to avoid losing money, but did not work as hard as control to obtain/gain money. In other words, depressed patients showed unimpaired performance on negative reinforcement tasks, but did not perform well on positive reinforcement tasks. This characterizes McGregor et. al's findings in the Hcrt-KO mice. This explains why narcoleptics (who are often Hcrt-depleted) often develop depressive states.

Perhaps one day, energy drinks will be replaced by Hcrt pills and drinks. They will function to increase Hcrt levels in the hypothalamus, increasing wakefulness and our productive drive during the day, with potential therapeutic benefits against depression.

Posted by

Vivek C. at 8:04 PM MST

Tags: attention, depression, eeg, sleep

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Uda Yuma

says:

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Banyak orang memandang usaha cetak buku umroh sebagai bisnis yang menguntungkan. Pasar yang terus tumbuh dan permintaan akan produk berkualitas membuat usaha ini menjadi pilihan bagi banyak orang. Namun, memulai usaha cetak buku umroh bukanlah hal yang mudah. Ada banyak faktor yang harus dipertimbangkan dan langkah yang harus diambil agar usaha ini sukses. Era digital telah membawa banyak perubahan dalam berbagai bidang, termasuk dalam dunia percetakan buku. Saat ini, cetak buku dengan teknologi digital printing semakin populer dan banyak dipilih oleh penerbit, penulis, dan pemilik bisnis. Ini karena digital printing memiliki banyak keuntungan dan alasan yang membuatnya menjadi pilihan yang tepat untuk cetakbuku murah . Usaha cetak buku manasik umroh merupakan bisnis yang menjanjikan dan banyak dipilih oleh para pengusaha baru. Namun, memulai usaha cetak buku umroh juga memerlukan persiapan dan rancangan yang tepat agar usaha tersebut dapat sukses. Berikut adalah beberapa faktor penting yang perlu diperhatikan dalam memulai usaha cetak buku umroh: Usaha cetak spanduk jakarta timur merupakan salah satu usaha yang menjanjikan dan memiliki potensi pasar yang besar. Namun, untuk memastikan keberhasilan usaha ini, Anda harus mampu menjangkau pelanggan dengan tepat. Berikut adalah beberapa tips yang bisa Anda lakukan untuk menjangkau pelanggan dengan usaha cetak spanduk: Percetakan buku adalah industri yang menawarkan layanan cetak buku murah jakarta dan produk cetakan lainnya, seperti brosur, poster, dan kartu nama. Dalam dunia usaha, ada berbagai jenis percetakan buku dan peluang bisnis yang dapat dimanfaatkan. Usaha cetak buku umroh adalah salah satu bisnis yang menjanjikan dan dapat menghasilkan keuntungan yang besar. Bisnis ini cocok bagi Anda yang memiliki minat dan passion dalam bidang percetakan serta memahami tentang industri perjalanan ibadah umroh. Berikut adalah beberapa hal yang perlu Anda ketahui dalam memulai usaha cetak buku umroh yang sukses: Usaha jasa cetak spanduk jakarta adalah bisnis yang bergerak dalam bidang produksi spanduk untuk berbagai keperluan seperti promosi, event, pameran, dll. Bisnis ini sangat menguntungkan dan memiliki prospek yang baik dalam era digital. Memulai bisnis cetak buku jakarta timur bisa menjadi pilihan yang menguntungkan bagi mereka yang memiliki minat dan passion di bidang tersebut. Namun, banyak orang yang merasa khawatir akan biaya yang dibutuhkan untuk memulai bisnis ini. Mencetak buku adalah hal yang penting bagi para penulis atau pemilik bisnis. Namun, proses cetak buku bisa menjadi mahal dan memakan waktu banyak. Teknologi saat ini memberikan solusi dengan menawarkan jasa cetak buku umroh yang menawarkan biaya terjangkau dan waktu cepat. Digital printing adalah jenis cetak modern yang memanfaatkan teknologi digital untuk mencetak desain atau gambar pada media cetak. Salah satu produk yang dapat dibuat dengan digital printing cetak spanduk jakarta . Bisnis percetakan jakarta timur memang menjadi pilihan bagi banyak orang yang ingin memulai usaha. Terlebih lagi dengan adanya era digital yang semakin mempermudah proses produksi dan distribusi. Berbagai jenis produk yang bisa dicetak, mulai dari buku, brosur, poster, hingga kartu nama membuat bisnis percetakan semakin menjanjikan. Namun, untuk memulai bisnis percetakan di Jakarta, Anda harus memperhatikan beberapa hal penting seperti lokasi, target pasar, dan modal. Pilihlah lokasi yang strategis dan mudah diakses oleh calon konsumen. Tentukan target pasar yang jelas agar produk yang dicetak sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan tren pasar. Modal yang diperlukan juga perlu dipertimbangkan, baik untuk pembelian mesin cetak, bahan baku, hingga biaya operasional lainnya. Dalam mencari tempat cetak" target="_blank">https://gotartwork.com/Blog/hal-yang-perlu-diperhatikan-saat-mencari-tempat-cetak-buku/116849/">cetak buku 24 jam , perlu memperhatikan hal-hal yang sangat penting. Agar nantinya tidak mendapatkan tempat percetakan yang abal-abal. Yaitu salah satunya dengan melihat kualitas yang dimiliki tempat percetakan tersebut. Karena bagaimana Anda bisa percaya jika tidak melihat kualitas yang dimiliki percetakan tersebut. Melihat kualitas percetakan tersebut, hal itu dapat membantu Anda memiliki buku yang sangat berkualitas. Mencetak spanduk jakarta yang memiliki ukuran besar membutuhkan proses yang berbeda dengan mencetak dokumen pada ukuran kertas kecil seperti A4 atau A3. Untuk menghindari kesalahan dalam proses cetak spanduk dan mendapatkan hasil yang bagus, berikut beberapa cara yang dapat dilakukan: Pertama, pastikan ukuran spanduk yang akan dicetak sesuai dengan desain yang dibuat. 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Kertas hvs digunakan untuk mencetak bukunotebook yang memiliki tebal yang lebih tebal dan kuat dibandingkan dengan kertas offset. Sedangkan kertas kraft digunakan untuk mencetak buku notebook yang memiliki tampilan yang lebih alami dan unik. Selain itu, beberapa bahan lain yang dapat digunakan untuk mencetak buku notebook adalah kertas karton, kertas art paper, dan kertas glossy. Usaha percetakan buku jakarta memiliki karakteristik tersendiri yang harus dimiliki oleh pengusaha untuk sukses dalam bisnis ini. Jika ingin memulai usaha percetakan buku, alangkah lebih bagus jika mendalami terlebih dahulu apa saja yang dibutuhkan sebelum memulai usaha percetakan buku. Umroh adalah salah satu ibadah yang dalam dan penuh makna bagi umat muslim. Banyak orang ingin mencatat setiap detil perjalanan mereka, termasuk kegiatan, pemandangan, dan kenangan-kenangan yang tak terlupakan. Oleh karena itu, jasa cetak buku umroh menjadi solusi yang tepat untuk mengabadikan perjalanan ibadah Anda. melalui usaha digital printing cetak spanduk memang membutuhkan modal yang cukup besar, tetapi dengan usaha yang cerdas, usaha ini bisa dimulai dengan modal kecil. Sebagai referensi salah satu website digital printing yang bergerak dibidang cetak spanduk murah dengan budget minim, kini telah berkembang pesat. Mesin cetak offset adalah jenis mesin percetakan yang memiliki fungsi untuk mencetak sejumlah banyak dokumen seperti cetak buku online , katalog, brosur, dan lain-lain. Cara kerjanya dengan menggunakan master atau plat dengan memindahkan huruf dan gambar ke blanket, lalu diteruskan ke media cetak seperti kertas. Era digital membuka peluang besar bagi usaha percetakan buku umroh. Anda dapat memulai usaha ini dengan skala kecil dan mengembangkannya dengan menambah mesin cetak dan meningkatkan kualitas hasil cetak. Selain itu, Anda juga bisa memperluas pasar dengan menawarkan jasa cetak buku umrah melalui platform online seperti Amazon, eBay, atau toko online sendiri. Dengan begitu, Anda bisa memperoleh keuntungan yang lebih besar. Bila anda ingin memulai usaha jasa cetak spanduk jakarta alangkan lebih baik untuk mengetahui tips dan trik apa saja yang harus dikuasai sebelum memulai usaha percetakan digital printing spanduk atau banner. Rawamangun, Jakarta Timur, adalah rumah bagi banyak bisnis percetakan buku yang menawarkan layanan terjangkau dan efisien bagi pelanggan mereka. Salah satu di antaranya adalah jasa cetak buku jakarta dengan pelayanan 24 jam yang menawarkan solusi praktis dan terpercaya bagi para penulis, penerbit, maupun perusahaan yang membutuhkan cetakan buku. Dengan pelayanan 24 jam, Anda tidak perlu khawatir akan kehabisan waktu untuk mencetak buku online Anda. Anda bisa mengambil buku Anda kapan saja, bahkan pada malam hari. Selain itu, percetakan ini juga menawarkan harga yang sangat kompetitif. Anda bisa mendapatkan harga per buku yang lebih murah dibandingkan dengan percetakan lain di Jakarta. Jika Anda sedang mencari percetakan untuk spanduk dengan kualitas tinggi dan harga terjangkau, maka Anda bisa mencoba percetakan digital printing di Jakarta. Percetakan ini menawarkan pelayanan 24 jam dan cetak spanduk yang berkualitas. Bukan hanya untuk keperluan promosi dan bisnis, kertas juga masih menjadi media utama dalam mencetak buku. Buku memang memiliki nilai sentimental dan historis yang tinggi, sehingga banyak orang yang masih memilih untuk mencetak buku murah dengan menggunakan kertas. Buku cetakan juga bisa menjadi koleksi yang bernilai bagi penggemar buku. Tepat sekali, memang sekarang ini banyak orang yang lebih memilih untuk mendesain banner sendiri agar sesuai dengan keinginan dan menekan anggaran. Dengan memiliki komputer atau laptop, membuat proses mendesain banner menjadi lebih mudah dan praktis. Namun, meskipun banyak yang berinisiatif untuk mendesain sendiri, bukan berarti hasil desain tersebut akan selalu sesuai dengan keinginan dan bisa langsung naik cetak spanduk jakarta . Notebook tidak hanya berfungsi sebagai buku catatan kecil, tetapi juga dapat dijadikan sebagai media promosi yang efektif dan berkesan. Dalam dunia periklanan, media promosi notebook cetak manasik umrah masih menjadi pilihan utama bagi banyak bisnis, terusama bagi jasa Tour dan Travel. Namun, dari sekian banyaknya media promosi cetak, notebook memiliki beberapa kelebihan yang dapat membantu mempromosikan bisnismu. Untuk menjaga konsumen tetap setia dan memperluas pasar, terus belajar dan mengembangkan adalah hal yang penting bagi bisnis cetak buku murah . Berikut adalah beberapa manfaat dari terus belajar dan mengembangkan: Sebelum memulai proses cetak spanduk jakarta timur , ada beberapa hal teknis yang perlu diperhatikan untuk memastikan kualitas cetakan yang dihasilkan bagus dan sesuai keinginan. Tentunya bagi yang baru pertama sekali melakukan cetak spanduk pasti masih bingung, harus mulai dari mana, baik itu mengenai file atau desain, maupun harga cetak spanduk per meter, pasti belum tau kan, berikut ini adalah Tips dan Trik Menyiapkan File untuk Cetak Spanduk Berkualitas Tinggi Beberapa hal teknis tersebut antara lain: Sebagai bagian dari persiapan ibadah umroh dan haji, memiliki buku manasik yang baik dan berkualitas sangat penting. Buku manasik akan membantu memudahkan Anda dalam memahami proses ibadah dan menjalankannya dengan benar. Oleh karena itu, jasa cetak buku umroh dan haji dengan pelayanan berkualitas di Jakarta hadir untuk membantu Anda. Percetakan 24 jam di Jakarta Timur menawarkan berbagai jenis layanan cetak, seperti cetak buku murah , brosur, poster, undangan, kartu nama, dan masih banyak lainnya. Layanan ini tersedia 24 jam sehari, 7 hari seminggu, sehingga Anda dapat mengambil hasil cetak kapan saja yang Anda inginkan. Usaha percetakan adalah salah satu bisnis yang menjanjikan di era digital saat ini. Masyarakat membutuhkan jasa cetak untuk berbagai keperluan, seperti cetak buku manasik , spanduk, kartu nama, dan lain-lain. Percetakan ini menawarkan berbagai layanan cetak, seperti cetak spanduk jakarta , brosur, poster, undangan, kartu nama, dan masih banyak lainnya. Layanan ini tersedia selama 24 jam sehari, 7 hari seminggu, sehingga Anda dapat mengambil hasil cetak kapan saja yang Anda inginkan. Finishing spanduk adalah pengolahan akhir setelah proses cetak spanduk jakarta telah siap. Finishing spanduk harus dilakukan setiap cetakan spanduk selesai, upaya finsihing spanduk berguna supaya spanduk terlihat lebih rapi dan lebih profesional. Disamping itu, finishing spanduk juga membantu kualitas ketahanan terhadap spanduk tersebut yang telah siap dicetak. Bagi anda pasti tidak asing dengan istilah jilid buku, proses jilid adalah hasil akhir setelah mencetak buku murah atau dokumen. Banyak dari kita yang pernah datang ke tempat fotocopy untuk menjilid tugas yang diberikan oleh guru atau dosen. Saat datang, kita sering ditanya, "Mau jilid seperti apa?" ini karena ada berbagai macam jilid yang bisa kita pilih sesuai kebutuhan. Berbicara tentang kebutuhan percetakan buku, terkadang datang pada saat-saat yang tidak terduga dan terburu-buru. Banyak orang yang membutuhkan buku umroh untuk persiapan ibadah haji mereka, namun tidak memiliki waktu untuk menunggu proses percetakan. Solusi terbaik untuk masalah ini adalah dengan mencari tempat cetak buku umroh yang buka 24 jam. Percetakan offset adalah metode cetak yang sangat populer dan sering digunakan oleh banyak perusahaan dan individu. Proses ini membutuhkan mesin cetak offset yang mampu mencetak gambar atau teks pada bahan cetak cetak buku murah, stiker, karton, atau bahan lainnya. Solusi cetak buku umroh dalam mencetak buku adalah dengan memilih metode cetak offset untuk jumlah cetak yang besar, dan menggunakan cetak digital untuk jumlah cetak yang kecil. Cetak offset lebih murah jika dibandingkan dengan cetak digital untuk jumlah yang besar, tetapi cetak digital lebih murah untuk jumlah cetak yang kecil. Penerbit juga bisa mencari penerbit buku yang menawarkan harga cetak yang kompetitif. Hal yang perlu diperhatikan saat mencari tempat cetak buku murah di jakarta timur. Tahun ajaran baru kerap sekali menjadi hal-hal yang ditunggu oleh sebagian anak sekolah. Mengapa? Karena tahun ajaran baru pastinya anak sekolah akan membeli perlengkapan sekolah yang terbaru juga. Salah satunya membeli buku, baik buku pelajaran maupum buku tulis untuk memperlancar kelancaran dalam pembelajaran. Tempat cetak buku umrah di Jakarta Timur. Ibadah umroh merupakan salah satu ibadah yang paling didambakan oleh seluruh umat muslim di dunia selain ibadah haji. Ibadah umroh dapat dilakukan oleh semua umat muslim didunia dengan kisaran waktu yang beragam sesuai yang diinginkan. Untuk melakukan ibadah umroh, alangkah baiknya menggunakan jasa travel. Jasa travel akan memberikan sebuah buku panduan untu jamaah ibadah umrohnya. Keuntungan memilih tempat cetak spanduk jakarta timur. Sekarang adalah bulan-bulang dimana sedang maraknya pemilihan kepala daerah. Yang dimana juga sedang marak-maraknya seseorang pasang spanduk di jalan maupun di daerah yang mereka tinggal. Spanduk tersebut biasanya di pasang oleh penggemar atau pendukung paslon. Jika banyak yang tidak mengetahui paslon itu adalah kependekan dari pasangan calon. Percetakan buku adalah salah satu bisnis yang penting di era digital. Ada beberapa jenis percetakan buku yang bisa Anda pilih sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan budget Anda. Berikut adalah beberapa jenis percetakan buku dan peluang usaha di era digital: Offset Printing: Merupakan jenis percetakan buku yang paling populer dan sering digunakan untuk mencetak buku massal. Keunggulannya adalah hasil cetak yang berkualitas dan harga yang lebih murah untuk jumlah buku yang banyak. Digital Printing: Merupakan jenis percetakan buku yang menggunakan teknologi digital untuk men cetak buku murah . Keunggulannya adalah biaya yang lebih rendah untuk jumlah buku yang sedikit dan hasil cetak yang berkualitas. Percetakan Buku Besar: Jenis percetakan buku ini digunakan untuk mencetak buku-buku besar seperti buku atlas, ensiklopedi, dan buku-buku ilmiah. Keunggulannya adalah hasil cetak yang berkualitas dan ukuran yang besar. Percetakan Buku Kecil: Jenis percetakan buku ini digunakan untuk mencetak buku-buku kecil seperti buku catatan, buku telepon, dan buku agenda. Keunggulannya adalah biaya yang lebih rendah dan mudah dibawa. AqurPrint dipercayai karena menawarkan cetak buku online dengan kualitas terbaik dan harga yang terjangkau. Mereka memiliki pengalaman dan teknologi terbaru dalam bidang cetak buku, sehingga mampu menghasilkan hasil yang memuaskan bagi pelanggan. Konsistensi dan kepercayaan pelanggan menjadi prioritas utama bagi AqurPrint, sehingga banyak pelanggan yang puas dan mempercayakan cetakan buku mereka ke AqurPrint. Jasa percetakan buku murah banyak tersedia di sekitar Jakarta, salah satunya adalah AqurPrint yang dikenal sebagai jasa seo andalan yang direkomendasikan untuk digunakan. Jumlah halaman juga mempengaruhi waktu percetakan buku. Buku dengan jumlah halaman yang banyak memerlukan waktu yang lebih lama dibandingkan dengan buku dengan jumlah halaman yang sedikit. Ini karena mesin cetak harus memproses lebih banyak halaman dan bahan baku untuk mencetak buku murah dengan jumlah halaman yang banyak. Oleh karena itu, jumlah halaman harus dipertimbangkan dalam jadwal produksi dan harus dikomunikasikan dengan jelas pada penerbit. AQUR PRINTING JAKARTA percetakan rawamangun 24 Jam Jakarta Timur | Cetak Buku Murah, Novel, Modul, Ebook, Buku Umrah, Spanduk, Banner, Print A0, Cutting Stiker, Kartu Nama, dll. Penerbit dan pencetak memang sering dikaitkan, namun memiliki peran yang berbeda. Penerbit adalah perusahaan atau individu yang bertanggung jawab untuk menerbitkan dan mempublikasikan bahan bacaan seperti buku, majalah, atau surat kabar. Sedangkan pencetak adalah perusahaan atau individu yang bertanggung jawab untuk mencetak buku murah atau bahan bacaan yang telah diterbitkan oleh penerbit. Keduanya bekerja sama untuk memproduksi dan menyebarkan bahan bacaan ke konsumenseo andalan Sudah menjadi rahasia umum bahwa mencetak buku bisa menjadi proses yang cukup mahal, terutama jika dicetak dengan metode offset. Namun, dengan adanya teknologi digital printing, kini Anda dapat mencetak buku dengan harga yang lebih murah. Berikut ini adalah beberapa alasan mengapa Anda harus memilih digital printing untuk mencetak buku murah Anda. Cetak offset dan digital printing merupakan dua teknologi percetakan yang sering digunakan dalam industri cetak buku murah . Kedua teknologi ini memiliki kelebihan dan kekurangan masing-masing, sehingga perlu dipahami perbedaan keduanya. Berikut ini adalah perbedaan cetak offset dan digital printing.Untuk membuat novel yang menarik, penulis harus bekerja sama dengan editor, layouter, dan desainer cover buku. Mereka akan membantu dalam memberikan masukan dan saran untuk membuat novel yang memukau dan tampak mengesankan. Penulis harus mempertimbangkan berbagai hal sebelum cetak buku murah, agar hasil akhirnya dapat diterima dengan baik oleh pembaca. Cara mencetak buku di percetakan saat ini semakin mudah dilakukan. Ada beragam pilihan percetakan yang dapat digunakan, baik itu percetakan besar maupun percetakan kecil. Selain itu, Anda juga dapat mencetak buku dalam bentuk softcopy atau hardcopy sesuai dengan kebutuhan Anda. Untuk memulai mencetak buku, pertama-tama Anda harus mempersiapkan bahan yang dibutuhkan. Hal ini meliputi naskah buku, desain sampul, dan ilustrasi (jika diperlukan). Selanjutnya, Anda dapat memilih percetakan yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan budget Anda, salah satu jasa cetak buku murah ada di AqurPrint. Anda dapat mencari percetakan AqurPrint melalui internet atau mengunjungi situs website resminya . Setelah memilih percetakan, Anda harus mengirimkan bahan yang dibutuhkan ke percetakan, termasuk naskah buku, desain sampul, dan ilustrasi. Pastikan bahwa semua bahan yang dikirimkan sudah dalam format yang sesuai dengan persyaratan percetakan. Kemudian, Anda harus menentukan jumlah buku yang akan dicetak dan membuat sebuah kontrak dengan percetakan. Proses cetak buku akan dimulai setelah Anda menyetujui desain sampul dan ilustrasi yang dikirimkan oleh percetakan. Anda akan menerima buku yang sudah jadi dalam waktu yang telah ditentukan di kontrak. Mencetak buku di percetakan memiliki banyak manfaat, seperti menyebarkan karya Anda kepada banyak orang, mendapatkan pendapatan dari penjualan buku, dan meningkatkan reputasi Anda sebagai penulis. Namun, pastikan untuk memilih percetakan yang tepat dan mempersiapkan bahan yang dibutuhkan dengan baik agar proses cetak berjalan lancar. Dengan mengikuti tips-tips di atas, Anda dapat mencetak buku sendiri dengan baik dan profesional. Jangan ragu untuk memulai dan selalu belajar untuk meningkatkan kualitas buku Anda. Salah saru referensi untuk anda yang sedang mencari tempat cetak buku murah di Jakarta bisa mengunjungi situs website AqurPrint . Namun, ini tidak berarti bahwa semua buku novel harus menggunakan ukuran ini, beberapa penerbit dan penulis mungkin memilih untuk menggunakan ukuran yang berbeda untuk menonjolkan karya mereka. Namun, ukuran A5 atau 13 x 19 cm adalah standar ukuran yang umum digunakan untuk novel.Jadi sudah sepatutnya jika setiap novel memiliki ukuran yang pas untuk dibawa. Ukurannya tidak terlalu kecil dan tidak terlalu besar, sehingga mudah untuk dibawa ke mana saja. Namun, tidak semua orang tahu bahwa ukuran buku novel juga memiliki variasi. Beberapa penerbit seperti percetakan AqurPrint jasa cetak buku murah memilih untuk menggunakan ukuran yang berbeda-beda dari standar ukuran A5 atau 13 x 19 cm. Namun, ukuran tersebut tetap sesuai dengan konsep praktis yang dibutuhkan oleh pembaca novel yang terdiri dari anak muda. Dalam industri percetakan, terdapat berbagai jenis kertas yang digunakan. Beberapa di antaranya yang paling umum digunakan adalah kertas HVS, art paper, dan ivory. Ketiga jenis kertas ini sangat populer digunakan dalam bisnis digital printing maupun jasa cetak buku murah . Namun, selain ketiga jenis kertas tersebut, masih banyak jenis kertas lain yang juga sering digunakan di industri ini. Jenis-jenis kertas tersebut dapat digunakan untuk berbagai macam aplikasi dan hasil cetak yang berbeda. Jika Anda tinggal di daerah Rawamangun dan memiliki naskah novel yang ingin diterbitkan, namun merasa khawatir untuk mengirimkannya ke penerbit besar, kini ada pilihan lain. Cetak Buku Murah di Rawamangun siap untuk membantu Anda menerbitkan novel Anda dengan biaya yang terjangkau. Jangan ragu lagi, segera hubungi cetak buku murah di Rawamangun untuk mewujudkan impian Anda menjadi penulis terbitan. Menerbitkan karya sendiri atau istilah populernya self-publishing merupakan salah satu cara alternatif untuk seorang penulis novel yang masih baru. Anda dapat mencetak novel dengan warna yang berbeda tanpa harus mengeluarkan biaya tambahan. 5. Digital printing memungkinkan Anda untuk mengubah desain novel sesuai keinginan Anda dengan mudah. Jadi, jika Anda ingin mencetak buku murah dan berkualitas, AqurPrint adalah pilihan yang tepat. Dengan metode digital printing, Anda dapat mencetak novel sesuai kebutuhan Anda dengan harga yang terjangkau. Di kalangan siswa, mahasiswa, hingga pekerja kantoran, notebook ini digunakan sebagai alat untuk mencatat ide-ide atau tulisan yang mudah dibawa ke mana-mana. Selain itu, notebook ini juga sering digunakan sebagai suvenir setelah mengikuti seminar karena harganya yang relatif murah dan berguna untuk mencatat hal-hal kecil. Jika Anda ingin mencetak notebook, Anda bisa mencari tempat cetak buku murah pastikan bahwa kualitas cetaknya baik. Cara Memilih Percetakan Buku Terpercaya: Tips dan Faktor Penting Memilih tempat cetak buku murah yang tepat dapat menjadi tugas yang menantang, mengingat banyaknya pilihan yang tersedia. Namun, ada beberapa hal yang dapat Anda pertimbangkan untuk memastikan Anda memilih percetakan yang tepat dan menghasilkan novel yang berkualitas. Cara Memilih Percetakan Cover Buku Terpercaya di Jakarta Memilih percetakan cover murah di Jakarta yang tepat dapat menjadi tugas yang menantang, mengingat banyaknya pilihan yang tersedia. Namun, ada beberapa hal yang dapat Anda pertimbangkan untuk memastikan Anda memilih percetakan yang tepat dan menghasilkan cover buku yang berkualitas. Tips Menentukan Pilihan Tempat Percetakan Cover Buku Jakarta Memilih percetakan yang tepat untuk cetak buku murah Anda dapat menjadi tugas yang menantang karena ada banyak pilihan. Tips Memilih Jasa Cetak Buku Novel di Jakarta Di Jakarta saat ini, terdapat banyak pilihan penerbit yang dapat Anda pilih untuk menerbitkan karya tulis Anda. Namun, sebelum memutuskan untuk menerbitkan karya Anda, penting untuk memilih penerbit yang terpercaya dan dapat menjamin kualitas cetak buku novel Anda. Pastikan untuk melakukan riset dan melakukan komunikasi dengan penerbit sebelum memutuskan untuk bekerja sama dengan mereka. Tips Memilih Penerbit dan Cetak Novel di Jakarta Terpercaya: 1. Reputasi: Cari tahu reputasi penerbit yang Anda ingin pilih. Cek apakah penerbit tersebut memiliki reputasi yang baik dalam mencetak buku-buku yang berkualitas dan terpercaya. 2. Portofolio: Lihat portofolio penerbit yang Anda inginkan. Cek apakah penerbit tersebut memiliki portfolio yang kaya dan beragam, yang menunjukkan bahwa penerbit tersebut memiliki pengalaman dan keahlian dalam mencetak berbagai jenis buku. 3. Layanan: Pertimbangkan layanan yang ditawarkan oleh penerbit. Cek apakah penerbit tersebut menawarkan layanan desain, editing, dan promosi untuk buku Anda. 4. Harga: Bandingkan harga yang ditawarkan oleh berbagai penerbit. Pilih penerbit yang menawarkan harga yang wajar dan kompetitif. 5. Waktu Penyelesaian: Pastikan penerbit yang Anda pilih dapat menyelesaikan proyek Anda dalam waktu yang ditentukan. Saat mencari penerbit terpercaya dan cetak buku murah di Jakarta, pastikan untuk mempertimbangkan reputasi, portofolio, layanan, harga, dan waktu penyelesaian dari penerbit. Ini akan membantu Anda membuat keputusan yang tepat dan memastikan novel Anda dicetak dengan baik dan tepat waktu. Cara Mencetak Buku Novel dengan Mudah Jika kamu ingin mencetak buku novel sendiri, ada beberapa hal yang perlu diperhatikan. Pertama, pastikan bahwa konten novel yang akan dicetak sudah siap dan telah dibaca ulang untuk memastikan tidak ada kesalahan atau kesalahan pengetikan. Kedua, pilih percetakan yang tepat dan berkualitas untuk mencetak novel kamu. Ketiga, pastikan untuk membuat desain sampul yang menarik dan profesional untuk novel kamu. Keempat, pastikan untuk memiliki file yang sesuai dengan format yang diperlukan percetakan. Jika kamu tidak yakin tentang proses ini, jangan ragu untuk berkonsultasi dengan percetakan atau profesional desain untuk membantu kamu dalam mencetak novel kamu dengan mudah dan hasil yang optimal. Bagi para novelis, mencetak buku novel adalah hal yang penting. Ada banyak agen percetakan yang menyediakan jasa percetakan novel berkualitas, murah, dan terjangkau. Namun sebelum Kamu memutuskan untuk mencetak novel, Kamu harus tahu cara mencetak buku novel dengan benar agar hasil yang diperoleh sesuai dengan yang diharapkan. Bagaimana Cara Mencetak Novel? Untuk mencetak buku murah dengan kualitas yang baik, Kamu perlu melakukan beberapa hal. Pertama, Kamu harus menentukan jumlah cetakan yang diinginkan. Kemudian, Kamu harus memilih jenis kertas yang sesuai dengan novel yang akan dicetak. Selanjutnya, Kamu harus memastikan bahwa desain sampul novel sudah sesuai dengan yang diinginkan. Setelah itu, Kamu bisa melakukan pemesanan di percetakan digital yang menyediakan jasa cetak novel. Pastikan untuk mengecek ulang sebelum mencetak dan selalu meminta contoh cetak untuk memastikan hasil akhir sesuai dengan yang diharapkan. Harga penerbitan buku dipengaruhi oleh beberapa faktor, seperti biaya cetak, desain, editing, distribusi dan promosi. Bagi Anda yang ingin menerbitkan buku secara mandiri, penting untuk memahami komponen-komponen ini agar dapat memilih penawaran paket cetak buku murah yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan budget Anda. Anda harus memastikan bahwa paket yang Anda pilih tidak hanya kompetitif dari segi harga, tetapi juga dapat diandalkan kualitasnya. Jangan buang waktu Anda dengan bertanya tentang harga cetak buku murah dari jasa percetakan ketika pertama kali menghubungi mereka. Ini akan memungkinkan Anda untuk membuat pertimbangan lain setelah mendapatkan informasi harga yang ditawarkan. Namun, jangan lupa bahwa "Ada harga, ada kualitas" dan pastikan kualitas vendor tersebut sesuai dengan harga yang ditawarkan sebelum membuat keputusan. Panduan Cetak Buku Online: Cara Membuat Buku Anda Terlihat Profesional cetak buku murah online saat ini menjadi pilihan yang semakin populer bagi para penulis yang ingin mempublikasikan karya mereka. Namun, tidak semua orang tahu cara membuat buku yang terlihat profesional. Dalam panduan ini, kami akan memberikan tips dan trik untuk membuat buku Anda terlihat lebih baik dan mudah ditemukan di mesin pencari. Tips Dalam Mencetak Buku Panduan Yang Mudah Dipahami Untuk Keperluan Bisnis Mencetak buku panduan merupakan salah satu cara efektif dalam menyampaikan informasi kepada konsumen atau pelanggan. Buku panduan dapat digunakan untuk berbagai keperluan bisnis, seperti panduan produk, panduan layanan, atau panduan penggunaan perangkat lunak. Namun, untuk membuat buku panduan yang efektif, ada beberapa hal yang perlu diperhatikan. Berikut ini adalah beberapa tips dalam mencetak buku murah untuk panduan yang mudah dipahami untuk keperluan bisnis. Memahami Perbedaan Cetak Offset dan Digital Printing: Kelebihan dan Kekurangan Cetak offset dan digital printing merupakan dua teknologi cetak yang sering digunakan dalam industri percetakan. Kedua teknologi ini memiliki kelebihan dan kekurangan masing-masing, sehingga perlu dipahami perbedaan keduanya. Berikut ini adalah perbedaan cetak offset dan digital printing. Proses Cetak Cetak offset menggunakan proses cetak dengan menggunakan plat cetak yang dibuat dari bahan fotogravure. Plat cetak ini diisi dengan tinta dan digunakan untuk mencetak pada kertas atau media lainnya. Sementara digital printing menggunakan proses cetak yang langsung dari file digital ke media cetak, tanpa melalui proses pembuatan plat cetak. Kualitas Cetak Cetak offset memiliki kualitas cetak yang lebih baik dibanding digital printing, karena proses cetak menggunakan plat cetak yang dapat menghasilkan warna yang lebih tajam dan akurat. Sementara digital printing memiliki kualitas cetak yang lebih rendah, karena warna yang dihasilkan tidak sebaik cetak offset. Biaya Cetak offset memiliki biaya yang lebih tinggi dibanding digital printing, karena proses cetak menggunakan plat cetak yang harus dibuat terlebih dahulu. Sementara digital printing memiliki biaya yang lebih rendah, karena proses cetak langsung dari file digital ke media cetak. Jumlah Cetak Cetak offset lebih cocok untuk jumlah cetak yang besar, karena biaya cetak akan lebih rendah untuk jumlah cetak yang besar. Sementara digital printing lebih cocok untuk jumlah cetak yang kecil, karena biaya cetak tidak terlalu berbeda antara jumlah cetak kecil dan besar. Waktu Cetak Cetak offset memerlukan waktu yang lebih lama dibanding digital printing, karena proses cetak menggunakan plat cetak yang harus dibuat terlebih dahulu. Sementara digital printing memerlukan waktu yang lebih singkat, karena proses cetak langsung dari file digital ke media cetak. Dari perbedaan di atas, dapat diketahui bahwa cetak offset dan digital printing memiliki kelebihan dan kekurangan masing-masing. Pilihan antara kedua teknologi cetak ini harus disesuaikan dengan kebutuhan dan budget yang sesuai, menggunakan tekonologi digital printing biaya untuk cetak buku murah dibandingak cetak offset. Cetak Buku Murah dengan Digital Printing: Keuntungan dan Alasannya Sudah menjadi rahasia umum bahwa mencetak buku bisa menjadi proses yang cukup mahal, terutama jika dicetak dengan metode offset. Namun, dengan adanya teknologi digital printing, kini Anda dapat mencetak buku dengan harga yang lebih murah. Berikut ini adalah beberapa alasan mengapa Anda harus memilih digital printing untuk mencetak buku Anda. Biaya Lebih Rendah Digital printing memiliki biaya yang lebih rendah dibanding metode offset, karena tidak memerlukan proses pembuatan plat cetak. Selain itu, biaya cetak juga tidak terlalu berbeda antara jumlah cetak yang kecil dan besar, sehingga cocok untuk cetak buku dengan jumlah yang tidak terlalu banyak. Waktu Cetak Lebih Singkat Proses cetak digital langsung dari file digital ke media cetak, sehingga tidak memerlukan waktu yang lama seperti metode offset yang harus menunggu pembuatan plat cetak. Ini membuat cetak buku lebih cepat dan efisien. Kualitas Cetak yang Baik Teknologi digital printing telah berkembang pesat dalam beberapa tahun terakhir, sehingga kualitas cetak yang dihasilkan sudah sangat baik. Anda dapat mencetak buku dengan warna yang tajam dan akurat, sehingga tidak perlu khawatir tentang kualitas cetak yang rendah. Pilihan Media Cetak yang Lebih Banyak Digital printing memungkinkan Anda untuk mencetak buku pada berbagai jenis media cetak seperti kertas glossy, kertas art, kertas foto, dll. Ini memungkinkan Anda untuk mencetak buku dengan tampilan yang unik dan menarik. Personalisasi Tinggi Digital printing memungkinkan Anda untuk mencetak buku dengan desain yang unik dan personalisasi tinggi. Anda dapat menambahkan foto, grafik, dan teks yang dapat disesuaikan sesuai keinginan. Jadi, jika Anda ingin mencetak buku digital printing adalah pilihan yang tepat. Dengan teknologi yang telah berkembang pesat, Anda dapat mencetak buku dengan kualitas yang baik dan biaya yang lebih rendah. Jangan ragu untuk mencoba dan membandingkan dengan metode offset untuk memastikan pilihan yang tepat. Untuk membuat novel menarik, kerja sama dengan editor, layouter, dan desainer sampul sangat penting. Desain sampul harus mencerminkan isi cerita dan menarik perhatian pembaca. Sinopsis harus ringkas, menarik, dan menimbulkan rasa ingin tahu. Kemampuan dan pengalaman penulis juga penting bagi pembaca. Penulis baru harus menunjukkan potensi dan kemampuan dalam menulis. Penerbitan novel di penerbit berkualitas sangat diperlukan agar novel diterima dan dikenal oleh pembaca. Editor, layouter, dan desainer cover buku berperan penting dalam membuat novel yang menarik dan memukau. Penulis harus bekerjasama dengan mereka untuk memberikan masukan dan saran dalam menentukan desain sampul dan sinopsis yang menarik. Biografi singkat penulis juga dapat mempengaruhi minat pembaca. Terbitkan cetak buku murah di penerbit berkualitas dan jangan lupa untuk membuat novel yang memiliki isi cerita yang menegangkan dan memukau. Pastikan untuk melakukan berbagai hal untuk membuat novel yang sukses. cetak buku murah dipengaruhi faktor seperti cetak, desain, editing, distribusi, dan promosi. Memahami komponen-komponen ini membantu pemilihan paket cetak yang sesuai dan hemat budget. Perhitungkan biaya kertas, cetak, desain, pemasaran, distribusi, dan biaya lain sebelum memilih penerbit. Aspek penting saat membandingkan harga adalah ukuran buku, jumlah halaman, jenis kertas, jenis sampul, bentuk buku, dan jumlah eksemplar. Jangan hanya terpaku pada harga murah, perhatikan juga pelayanan dan kualitas hasil cetakan dari penerbit. Pilih penerbit yang memberikan pelayanan dan hasil cetak berkualitas. Penting juga untuk mempertimbangkan jangka waktu penerbitan buku. Penerbit yang memiliki jangka waktu penerbitan yang lebih singkat bisa menjadi pilihan yang lebih baik, meskipun harganya lebih mahal. Namun, pastikan juga bahwa kualitas buku tetap terjaga, dan bahwa penerbit memiliki infrastruktur dan sumber daya yang memadai untuk memastikan bahwa proses penerbitan berjalan dengan lancar. Jangan ragu untuk meminta bantuan dan nasihat dari penerbit terpercaya atau profesional di bidang penerbitan buku. Mereka akan membantu Anda dalam memahami proses penerbitan dan membantu Anda membuat keputusan yang tepat. Dengan memahami komponen-komponen harga penerbitan buku dan mempertimbangkan faktor-faktor lain seperti jangka waktu penerbitan dan kualitas hasil cetak, Anda akan lebih mudah memilih paket cetak buku yang tepat dan sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan budget Anda. menawarkan keuntungan seperti proses yang cepat dan mudah, biaya yang lebih rendah, aksesibilitas buku yang lebih luas, pilihan format digital, dan revisi yang lebih cepat. Penerbitan buku online juga membantu dalam pemasaran buku melalui website, blog, media sosial, dan marketplace. Hak Kekayaan Intelektual sangat penting bagi penerbitan buku dan menulis buku dapat menjadi sumber pendapatan yang menggiurkan. Dalam memilih penerbit, bersikap selektif agar bisa menemukan penerbit yang memuaskan dan membantu promosi dan penjualan karya. Contoh penerbit buku berkualitas di Indonesia adalah Aqur Print. Solusi Terbaik untuk Menerbitkan Buku Online: Cari penerbit buku online yang profesional dan memiliki reputasi baik. Pastikan penerbit memiliki fasilitas pemasaran dan promosi yang efektif. Baca dan pahami syarat dan ketentuan penerbit sebelum memutuskan bekerja sama. Periksa hak cipta dan Hak Kekayaan Intelektual (HKI) yang melindungi naskah Anda. Diskusikan bagian-bagian penting dari naskah seperti royalti, harga, dan promosi dengan penerbit. Pertimbangkan penerbit yang menawarkan layanan gratis seperti desain sampul dan pengurusan ISBN. Pilih penerbit yang memiliki tim yang profesional dan memiliki pengalaman dalam menerbitkan buku. Cari penerbit yang menawarkan solusi penerbitan yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan harapan Anda. Alasan harga ebook sering lebih mahal daripada buku cetak: 1) Biaya produksi buku cetak tidak sebesar perkiraan, 2) Sistem penetapan cetak buku murah seperti ebook berbeda dari buku cetak, 3) Penggemar ebook mau membayar untuk nilai dan kenyamanan yang ditawarkan, 4) Mereka yang terlibat dalam proses pembuatan ebook harus dibayar, 5) Ebook memerlukan perangkat digital untuk membacanya, 6) Biaya pemeliharaan dan pengembangan aplikasi, 7) Sistem proteksi hak cipta. Alasan lain mengapa harga ebook lebih mahal daripada buku cetak adalah: 4. Kemampuan interaktif Ebook biasanya menawarkan fitur interaktif yang tidak dimiliki oleh buku cetak, seperti pencarian, tautan, dan banyak lainnya. Fitur-fitur ini membuat pembaca dapat dengan mudah menemukan apa yang dicari dan membuat proses membaca menjadi lebih menyenangkan. Dengan adanya fitur-fitur ini, penerbit harus mengeluarkan biaya lebih banyak untuk pembuatan ebook dibandingkan buku cetak. Kemampuan aksesibilitas Ebook juga memiliki kemampuan aksesibilitas yang lebih baik, seperti dapat diakses oleh pembaca dengan gangguan penglihatan atau pendengaran. Buku cetak biasanya tidak memiliki fitur ini, sehingga penerbit harus mengeluarkan biaya lebih banyak untuk membuat ebook yang aksesibel. Biaya lisensi Penerbit harus membayar lisensi untuk setiap ebook yang dijual. Lisensi ini memberikan hak kepada penerbit untuk menjual ebook dan membuat profit dari penjualannya. Biaya lisensi ini menambah biaya produksi ebook dan harus diteruskan kepada pembaca melalui harga jual yang lebih tinggi. Perlindungan Hak Cipta Ebook membutuhkan perlindungan hak cipta yang lebih baik dibandingkan buku cetak untuk mencegah penyalahgunaan dan pembajakan. Penerbit harus mengeluarkan biaya untuk memastikan bahwa ebook yang dijual tidak dapat diduplikasi atau dijual tanpa izin. Dengan demikian, harga ebook lebih mahal karena biaya produksi yang lebih tinggi, model penetapan harga yang berbeda, keuntungan yang ditawarkan, biaya lisensi, dan perlindungan hak cipta. Self-publishing, atau menerbitkan buku sendiri, kini lebih populer dikarenakan peningkatan kualitas digital printing. Hal ini mempermudah bagi penulis independen untuk menulis, merancang, dan mencetak buku murah mereka sendiri. Self-publishing melalui digital printing memberikan kebebasan bagi penulis untuk mengejar kreativitas dan gaya mereka serta mengontrol seluruh aspek penerbitan. Keuntungan lainnya meliputi pengontrolan kreatif, waktu terbit yang cepat, biaya yang lebih rendah, distribusi yang luas, dan kemungkinan untuk mengubah atau memperbarui. Jika Anda tertarik untuk self-publishing, Aqur Print adalah pilihan yang baik. Kami memiliki pengalaman lebih dari 30 tahun dan menjaga kualitas cetakan. Kami menyediakan berbagai pilihan tinta dan mesin cetak digital terbaik, seperti mesin cetak Hp Indigo 7900 dan Hp Indigo 5900, untuk memastikan hasil cetak yang berkualitas tinggi. Jangan ragu untuk mencetak buku Anda di Aqur Print. Selain biaya produksi, faktor lain yang perlu diperhatikanadalah perbedaan model penetapan cetak buku murah dan ebook. Buku cetakbiasanya dijual kepada pengecer dengan harga setengah dari harga jual akhir.Pengecer kemudian dapat menjual buku tersebut dengan harga yang mereka inginkanatau sesuai dengan perjanjian harga tertentu. Sedangkan ebook ditetapkan hargajual oleh penerbit atau penulis. Tips membandingkan harga percetakan buku di Indonesia: 1. Bandingkan harga dari beberapa sumber seperti situs web percetakan atau platform online yang menawarkan jasa percetakan. 2. Tanyakan jenis-jenis percetakan yang tersedia dan bandingkan harga yang ditawarkan. 3. Pertimbangkan layanan dan kualitas cetak dalam pembandingan harga. 4. Ingat bahwa jasa percetakan dengan harga murah belum tentu memiliki kualitas yang baik. 5. Jangan tergiur hanya dengan harga cetak buku murah , pertimbangkan juga faktor lain seperti pengiriman, kualitas cetak dan layanan pelanggan. Contoh perbandingan harga percetakan buku di Indonesia: 1. Percetakan X: Harga percetakan buku Rp 3.000/lembar, dengan pilihan ukuran dan jenis kertas yang terbatas. 2. Percetakan Y: Harga percetakan buku Rp 4.000/lembar, dengan pilihan ukuran dan jenis kertas yang lebih banyak. 3. Percetakan Z: Harga cetak buku murah Rp 5.000/lembar, dengan pilihan ukuran dan jenis kertas terbanyak, layanan desain gratis, dan pengiriman gratis. Dalam hal ini, perbandingan harga bukanlah satu-satunya faktor yang harus dipertimbangkan. Percetakan Z mungkin memiliki harga lebih tinggi, tetapi memberikan layanan tambahan seperti desain gratis dan pengiriman gratis. Oleh karena itu, pembandingan harus dilakukan secara menyeluruh, termasuk faktor lain seperti kualitas cetak, pengiriman, dan layanan pelanggan.

Posted on Mon, 13 Feb 2023 3:23 AM MST by Uda Y.

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Media consumption: a hurtful or helpful dependence?

Among every generation across the world, people are more plugged in than ever before. In fact, Americans spend almost a quarter of their time online on social networking sites; 42 percent of children under 8 years old have a TV in their bedroom, and half (52 percent) of these children have access to a new mobile device such as a smart phone, video iPod, or iPad/tablet [1]. The question is, will these youngsters grow into productive citizens of the digital age, or will the countless hours spent attached to the virtual world prevent the world's youth from reaching their potential?
It is widely accepted that technology affects cognitive development. The developing brain is more malleable in response to experience than is the adult brain [2]. Thus, the persuasive effects of technology on children are an important concern. An article posted in September's issue of Neuron sought to answer "how", and if these changes are for better or for worse. Constructive limits can be defined only after truly understanding the adverse effects of technology.

The first task in this investigation was distinguishing temporary and long-term effects of technology. The changes in mood and arousal typically cease and eventually disappear after the experience (like listening to an up-tempo piece of music or playing a fast-paced video game) ends. Therefore, the focus of this study was on long-term behavioral outcomes of technology use. It was found that different kinds of media have different content, task requirements, and attentional demands and thus lead to different behavioral effects. For example, technological applications that on the surface seem rather mindless (such as action video games) can result in improvements in a number of basic attentional, motor, and visual skills, whereas technology specifically developed for the purpose of enhancing cognitive abilities, such as infant-directed media including the "Baby Einstein" collection or various "brain games" designed for adults, may lead to no effects or, worse, may lead to unanticipated negative effects [2].

Many popular children's shows have been investigated. It was found that to be effective, early intervention programs need not only engage the young viewer, but they must also elicit direct participation from the child, provide a strong language model, avoid overloading the child with distracting stimulation, include a well-articulated narrative structure, exemplify how to resolve social conflicts and productively manage disagreements and frustration. Time spent watching the children's television show "Teletubbies" has been linked with a reduction in language skills, whereas "Sesame Street," "Blue's Clues," "Clifford the Big Red Dog," and "Dora the Explorer" allow us to ask what characteristics lead to beneficial outcomes and what characteristics lead to negative outcomes. Furthermore, children who report playing action games show significantly increased attentional skills as compared with those who do not. However, only a fine line separates a stimulating and successful media from an overloading experience, making the development of such games challenging.

At the molecular level, acetylcholine and dopamine have been linked to these mechanisms. Recent technological developments have enabled researchers to isolate key events hypothesized to promote learning and brain plasticity from a continuous media stream. By injecting content along with these events, learning can be directly assessed. This approach reveals the critical role of neurotransmitters in the control of learning and brain plasticity. Events that are arousing are likely to trigger a release of acetylcholine. It is hypothesized that acetylcholine facilitates the retuning of existing connectivity in an experience-dependent manner, which allows for better behavioral inference from the learned experience. Dopamine, a neurotransmitter implicated in executive functions and the control of attention, also promotes brain plasticity.

By thoroughly understanding the neurological mechanisms associated with technology use, behavioral outcomes can be accurately predicted, and beneficial outcomes can be determined based on neural processing rather than external characteristics. That way, learning models can be designed to maximize the benefits of technology for the future.

[1] http://www.frankwbaker.com/mediause.htm
[2] http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MiamiImage[ URL&_cid=272195&_user=10&_pii=S0896627310006781&_check=y&_coverDate=2010-09-09&view=c&_gw=y&wchp=dGLbVlB-zSkWb&md5=d791cca69497401e5cc3917c609a96a4/1-s2.0-S0896627310006781-main.pdf

Posted by

Rebecca R. at 7:25 PM MST

Tags: attention, neuroplasticity

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Uda Yuma

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Posted on Mon, 13 Feb 2023 3:25 AM MST by Uda Y.

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November 4, 2011

Sleep Yourself Smart

You might want to consider carefully how much time you spend awake and thinking. Recent research has shown that the aggregate number of connections in your brain increases during wakeful states and, as is well known from previous decades' brain research, losing connections during childhood is a major part of developing a mature, intelligent mind.

Super geniuses Stephanie Maret, Ugo Faraguna, Aaron B. Nelson, Chiara Cirelli, and Giulio Tononi of the University of Wisconsin have been monitoring the brain growth of groups of mice in order to learn more about neuronal dynamics. What they've discovered and the work it's built on may come as quite a surprise.

Using mice that were genetically engineered to express a yellow fluorescent protein in their brains and two photon microscopy, the researchers took a look at isolated dendritic branches in their motor cortices. They photographed the section of dendrites in a mouse, then subjected it to a regimen of normal sleep, reversed sleep (diurnal rather than nocturnal), or sleep deprivation. Then they photographed exactly the same group of dendrites again to get a comparison of the spines. These science fiction techniques revealed a tiny world teeming with activity.

The dendritic spines, the tiny projections between a target neuron and an input from a neighboring neuron, moved about with vigorous life and with all sorts of different kinds and activity levels. Lots of connections were being made and lost, mostly in the smaller dendrites. As many as about 10% of the connections within view in the researchers' pictures were made new or disconnected in the span of about 15 hours during which all this research took place. The rule seemed to be that the smaller the dendrite, the less stable the connection. Filopodia, the tiny dendrite buds that can mature into full connections, were bubbling away on the surfaces of the neurons; though they constituted only about 1 in 40 dendrites they accounted for nearly a quarter of all changes observed. On the other hand, large and mature mushroom dendrites didn't change at all in this study.

What was most important though, and the thing the researchers most wanted to know, is what role sleep played in building and losing dendrites. They hypothesized that the mice would have a net gain in dendrites during wakeful states and a net loss during sleep. Using three groups of mice they determined that their hypothesis was correct. They found that forcing the mice to stay awake during the day when they prefer to sleep and having them sleep at night instead had no effect so long as the total amount of time they slept was the same as the mice who got to sleep on their natural schedule. Even more interesting, they found that sleep deprivation would cause the number of dendrites to keep climbing and climbing until the mice reached such a state of exhaustion that they were really in a state of half-wakefulness, at which point the number would stop increasing.

This research could help to explain something about mental exhaustion and why those late night study breaks don't really help so much. Apparently the brain has a limit to the number of mental acrobatics it can do in any given wakefulness cycle before it needs to shut back down and recharge, the meaning of the recharging partially being that it's removing a massive number of dendrites. Then again, it helps to elucidate the lives of children and babies with their long sleep cycles which are apparently necessary to accommodate all the extra dendrite loss they experience.

This research is only the first in what could be a wide world of new discoveries of the differences between the waking and sleeping brain. For a closer look into this study and to review its excellent and exciting references, find it in the November, 2011 issue of Nature Neuroscience under the title "Sleep and waking modulate spine turnover in the adolescent mouse cortex".

Posted by

Sky B. at 5:49 AM MDT

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October 16, 2011

The Best Pain Reliever: Meditation

Recent consensus numbers indicate that roughly 20 million, or about 10%, of the current U.S. population reported practicing meditation in the last year! To many of us at CU, the practice of meditation is all too familiar - Boulder, CO is one of the most yoga- and meditation- active cities in the U.S.

A recent study in the Journal of Neuroscience by Zeidan et. al (http://www.jneurosci.org/content/31/14/5540.abstract) analyzes an interesting application of meditation: modulation of pain. In particular, the Shamantha model of meditation was examined, one which involves sustaining attention on the "changing sensations of breath, monitoring discursive events as they rise, disengaging from those events without affective reaction, and redirecting attention back to breath". In this study, the discursive event was pain, and subjects were assessed for their ability to dissociate cognition of the pain stimulus from pain response.

The study employs a novel form of fMRI called pulse arterial spine labeled (PASL) MRI, a form of imaging that quantifies cerebral blood flow (CBF). Blood oxygen-level dependent (BOLD) fMRI, the conventional form of fMRI, is useful for monitoring short spurts of activity, but it is susceptible to slow drifts in signal intensity over extended periods of time. Because the practice of meditation often requires ample time, PASL MRI is better suited than BOLD fMRI.

The experiment consisted of 15 healthy volunteers. Three groups were sampled: a control group that received no training, an experimental group that only received directions to focus attention to breathing (ATB), and an experimental group that was taught Shamantha meditation. Each group was brought into a neutral environment and was presented with a 6 min. noxious heat stimulus (at 49 deg Celsius), during which the control group was instructed to rest, the ATB group to focus on breathing, and the meditation group to meditate. Two MRI readings were taken on all groups during presentation of noxious stimuli: pre- and post-meditation training. Additionally, test subjects were asked to rate unpleasantness of pain through the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI) shortform.

Interestingly, the results show that attention to breath alone has no effect on modulating pain response; ratings of pain intensity and unpleasantness were identical between the control and ATB groups prior to meditation training. After meditation training, the experimental groups exhibited a 57% decrease in pain unpleasantness ratings and a 40% decrease in pain intensity ratings relative to the control group. Statistical analysis shows that meditation-induced reductions in pain were associated with increased activity in the anterior cingulate cortex and anterior insula, areas involved in the cognitive recognition of pain. This may seem paradoxical at first, as a majority of past studies have reported increased activity of these areas increases pain experience.

It is important to note that Zeidan et. al clarify the increased activity of these areas with the concurrent reduction of activity in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), an area of the brain associated with emotional evaluation and response. Grant et. al (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21055874) report a similar de-coupling of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and the cingulate, suggesting that the DLPFC (like the OFC) functions to generate emotional response after the cingulate receives afferents from pain stimuli. Given this novel model of pain, it is not surprising that the anterior cingulate cortex and anterior insula were active in meditating individuals; the heightened activity of these areas allowed them to be aware of discursive events (pain stimuli), but the reduced activity of the OFC allowed them to dissociate their pain response and refocus their attention to breathing.

These results show that meditation may be a powerful, natural way of dealing with pain. In an era where opiates and pain relievers are often relentlessly abused, meditation may be the perfect solution. Maybe one day, we'll see NFL athletes meditate at the end of practices and games, or physical rehabilitation patients meditate daily to overcome the pain of a healing injury. Only time, and more research, can tell.

Posted by

Vivek C. at 10:49 PM MDT

Tags: alternative therapy, attention, brain imaging, pain

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Genetic Basis of Psychiatric Disorders

Psychiatric disease genes in humans are exceedingly difficult to study. The disease features and symptoms present can differ among individuals and may differ in severity. Polygenic inheritance and gene-environment interactions play a role in these diseases, making it difficult to decide how many genes contribute to the disease and whether a behavior should be attributed to genes or to environmental influences. For these reasons, using mouse genetics is beneficial; the environmental and genetic makeup can be controlled for. In order to be able to generalize the results to humans, the researchers in this study created transgenic mice that expressed the human orphan nuclear receptor 2E1 (NR2E1) to see how the gene affected the behavior of the mice. Abrahams et al. studied four types of mice: wild-type, transgenic (contains human NR2E1 gene), fierce (NR2E1 deletion), and rescue (NR2E1 replaced during adulthood). Without NR2E1, mice would demonstrate pathological violence, in addition to physical abnormalities. These NR2E1 null mice are referred to as "fierce." Additionally, the presence of a transgene spanning human NR2E1 can eliminate the brain and eye abnormalities and restore normal behavior to fierce mice, implicating possible treatments for psychiatric diseases that involve pathological behaviors.

Physical abnormalities were abundant in fierce mice, whereas transgenic and rescue mice were phenotypically indistinguishable from wild-type mice. Brain abnormalities in fierce mice included hypoplasia of the olfactory bulbs and anterior cortex, which was determined by an analysis of the surface areas of these regions. This damage left midbrain colliculi exposed. Additionally, the brain contained an abnormally small forebrain, abnormally shaped cingulum, poorly defined piriform cortex, smaller anterior commissure, abnormal cortical lamination, a reduction in striatal volume, an enlargement of corticostriatal fibers, and a thin external capsule of the corpus callosum. Eye abnormalities included radial asymmetry, mottling of the retinal pigment epithelium, and a reduction in retinal vessel number. It should be noted that rescue mice had a significantly reduced vessel number compared to wild-type and transgenic, though they were phenotypically normal by qualitative and quantitative analyses. Behaviorally, fierce mice were more spontaneous, more aggressive (to the point that they would attack or kill mates), and less social than the mice of the other three genotypes.

NR2E1 is transcribed in regions important for neurogenesis and it is thought that it suppresses the differentiation of neuronal stem cells. Since NR2E1 deletion produces physical abnormalities in the brain, it is thought that the available stem cells cannot form into the proper structures through neurogenesis. Although this explains the physical abnormalities, it remains unknown whether abnormal behavior results from improper brain development or from a deficiency in NR2E1 signaling. In humans, it is more likely that a subtle variation of NR2E1, rather than a gene deletion, is at work to produce behavioral abnormalities. For instance, NR2E1 may play a role in bipolar disorder, and only a small portion of the gene is disrupted. Abrahams et al also note that genes that interact with NR2E1 may be involved in psychiatric disease, so association studies should be done to examine other contributors to psychiatric diseases.

Ultimately, few transgenic rescue experiments have been done, although they are increasing in popularity. The few that have been done have prevented embryonic lethality using a human gene as a rescue, but have not improved abnormal behavior. This study was instrumental in demonstrating that rescue genes can correct abnormal behavior.

Source: http://www.jneurosci.org/content/25/27/6263.full.pdf+html?sid=44333731-d47a-48fc-80df-d59af7a07702

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Alyssa F. at 10:08 PM MDT

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Macho Synapses, Curvaceous Cognitive Sets

Forget everything you thought you knew about the differences between men and women. The latest research has shown that the differences between the sexes run much deeper than body structures and the equipment they have downstairs, to the point that even the way they think might be distinctly masculine or feminine and attempting to understand the thinking of the other sex may be a larger gap to cross than previously thought. Now there's much promise that recent scientific developments may help create understanding of atypical sexual activities, preferences, and anatomies. Margaret M. McCarthy and Arthur P. Arnold of the University of Maryland and UCLA, respectively, have culled the research of recent years to update the last century's model of sexual development in their May 2011 Nature Neuroscience published review, Reframing Sexual Differentiation of the Brain.
Things used to be simpler in the past when an animal simply had either testosterone or estrogen produced in the gonads and then those molecules would go off into tissues and structures all over the body and exert influences over long periods of time. Now, McCarthy and Arnold tell us that that's only part of the story. Recent research has shown that estradiol, the major masculinizing and defeminizing metabolite of testosterone, can be synthesized on demand in neurons and have rapid effects, that genetically castrated rats still behave like males, and that synaptic connection strategies differ between the sexes. The authors are presenting an entirely new, more nuanced model of sexual differentiation that takes into account the multiple parallel signaling mechanisms recently discovered and the role of environment.
Their model is helping to explain why men are from Mars and women are from Venus. It turns out that there are many differences in brain structure between the sexes. Males tend to have larger spinal cord nuclei and medial preoptic areas of the hypothalamus than women, which is to be expected since these areas control penis muscles and masculine sexual behavior, respectively. What's more surprising is that females grow more new cells in the amygdala soon after birth, and males get more in the hippocampus, areas more typically related to fear and memory than sexual behaviors. Would that be something that would affect the way their brains function, making them think differently? Well, if not that then certainly the recent discovery that male dendrites are longer and more branched than females in the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus, along with differences in spine density as much as 2-3 times between the sexes in diverse areas may clear some things up. With such varied connection strategies, it's no wonder that the sexes often can't follow each other's thoughts; the ideas may end up in completely different parts of the brain depending on whether the listener has a male or female brain. Indeed, proportionally larger brain areas may contribute a larger slice of the overall cognitive set, and so it may make sense that women and men will have different strategies for solving problems.
Another extension of the authors' work worthy of note is that their model makes room for not just dimorphism of sexual behavior and physiology, but polymorphism. Cloning has made possible the creation of XX genome rats with testes and XY genome rats with ovaries by moving the testes-determining gene, Sry, off of the Y chromosome to an autosome. Many other things stayed the same though, regardless of gonadal sex, such as habit formation patterns, alcohol preference, and aggression. This means that the things that make a person male or female are likely largely independent of what sex organs they have. Certainly there's room in the human genome, particularly atypical genomes, for combinations of genetically influenced traits all across the spectrum. Hopefully this enlightenment can lead to more understanding and tolerance in a world know for its brutally against those with sexual differences.
These more nuanced new ways of thinking have a certain charm in their complexity. I remember being taught as a child that all things male came from testosterone, all things female from estrogen, and then being appalled to hear in my teens that women had testosterone too and that it was a good thing. It's pleasant to imagine now describing to my children this more complex understanding and watching their minds engage and take in the realization of the depth of the mystery of the world.

Posted by

Sky B. at 4:15 PM MDT

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October 3, 2011

Paranormal Activity or Science?

We have all heard the theories of seeing a bright light or your life flashing before your eyes right before you die. In fact, accounts of these near-death experiences can be traced back to literature of ancient Greece. Most theological doctrines share the idea that death is a passing to an afterlife, an eternal utopia where we are reunited with loved ones. Interestingly, 3% of Americans declare to have had a near-death experience [1], and their accounts have recently been discussed in several books. These books, however, tend to leave out physiological explanations for these experiences and rely solely on paranormal explanations.

The Medical Research Council of Cambridge and University of Edinburgh took it upon themselves to research the neurological events behind these notions. They found that contrary to popular belief, there is actually nothing paranormal about these experiences. Instead, near-death experiences are the manifestation of normal brain function gone awry during a traumatic, and sometimes harmless, event [2].

In order of occurrence, the basic features of near-death experiences include awareness of being dead (50%), meeting with deceased people (32%), moving through a tunnel (31%), and having an out-of-body experience (24%) [3]. Only 56% of those who had a near-death experience associated it with positive emotions, which is contrary to the belief that feelings of euphoria and bliss are associated with these experiences.

The following are scientifically-based explanations on these peculiar experiences. Cotard syndrome is a documented disorder characterized by the feeling that one is dead. It has been associated with the parietal cortex and the prefrontal cortex, and just like the near-death experience equivalent, it is likely an attempt for the brain to make sense of a strange experience the patient is having. Out-of-body experiences are common during REM sleep, and results from a failure to integrate multisensory information from one's body, which results in the disruption of self-representation. A tunnel of light can be explained by visual activity during retinal ischemia, which is when the blood and oxygen supply to the eye is depleted. It has been to feelings of extreme fear because the same sensation has been reported by pilots flying at G-force. As far as meeting deceased people, several neuroscience studies have proved that brain pathology can lead to visions of souls of the dead, angels or a religious figure that are prevalent in fiction and personal accounts. Examples are hallucinations of Alzheimer's or Parkinson's disease, and patients with abnormal dopamine function. Theoretically, many hallucinations are due to brain structures over-compensating near damaged areas or making sense of noise from damaged areas.

Additionally, the fact that the drug ketamine often mimics these experiences including hallucinations, out-of-body experiences, and positive emotions such as euphoria, dissociation, and spiritual experiences further supports the position these accounts are due to neurophysiological parameters, not paranormal phenomenon.

Obviously, further evidence is required if the ideas such as these will ever be fully demystified by the reliable realm of science. Though it may come as a disappointment to some (and others may even refuse to accept it), it is important that these neurobiological-based findings are spread.

[1] Schmied, I. et al. (1999) Todesna¨heerfahrungen in Ost- und Westdeutschland eine empirische Untersuchung. In Todesna¨he: interdisziplina¨re Zuga¨nge zu einem auergewo¨hnlichen Pha¨nomen (Knoblaub, H. and Soeffner, H.G., eds), pp. 217250, Universita¨tsverlag Konstanz

[2] Article Source: http://download.cell.com/trends/cognitivesciences/pdf/PIIS1364661311001550.pdf?intermediate=true

[3] van Lommel, P. et al. (2001) Near-Death experiences in surviviors of cardiac arrest: a prospective study in the Netherlands. Lancet 358, 20392045

Posted by

Rebecca R. at 5:05 PM MDT

Tags: neurobiology

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September 26, 2011

Just say no.

It is difficult to find someone who truly has not seen the atrocious affects of drugs on a person. Whether it be a close friend or family member, an ad in a newspaper, or one of those haunting Colorado-Meth-Project commercials, the word is out: drugs kill. And they are killing more and more than ever before.

The dangers of addiction are widely known, yet countless lives are constantly being enslaved to the heinous power of addictive drugs. Thus, addiction is the area of interest in countless labs across the world. Understanding the neurological pathways of drug addiction is vital in the ongoing "war on drugs" that seems like it will never come to a halt. In fact, according to the Mayo Clinic, 19.5 million people over the age of 12 use illegal drugs in the United States [1]. But, if there is a chance of recovery and relief, it is my belief that it will not come from lawmakers or the police force, but rather from the realm of science.

One such study was published in Neuron this year: Potential Vulnerabilities of Neuronal Reward, Risk, and Decision Mechanisms to Addictive Drugs. It sought out to explore how the normal, physiological reward processes can be affected by addictive drugs. It all came down to changes in acute responses and plasticity in the brain, specifically dopamine neurons and postsynaptic structures. Dopamine has many functions in the brain, including important roles in behavior and cognition, voluntary movement, motivation and reward, inhibition of prolactin production (involved in lactation), sleep, mood, attention, and learning [2].

These effects reduce reward discrimination, increase the effects of reward prediction error signals, and enhance neuronal responses to reward-predicting stimuli, which may contribute to compulsion [3]. Addictive drugs increase neuronal temporal reward discounting and generate temporal myopia, which impairs the control of drug taking.
The experiment also found that long-term enhanced dopamine levels may disturb working memory mechanisms necessary for assessing background rewards. Thus, drugs may generate inaccurate neuronal reward predictions. Drug-induced working memory deficits may also impair neuronal risk signaling, promote risky behaviors, and facilitate preaddictive drug use. Malfunctioning adaptive reward coding may lead to overvaluation of drug rewards. Many of these malfunctions may result in inadequate neuronal decision mechanisms and lead to choices biased toward drug rewards [3].

Studies like this are incredibly important not only to drug-users and their loved ones, but to society as a whole. I will never forget the day I met a homeless man in Denver who asked me if you can fly on a plane if you have a warrant out for your arrest. I learned that he was trying to get home to his family in Michigan after ten years of being away. One day at work he was feeling really low and tried some "white powder" and he saidwithin a few months he lost his job, his family, his friends, his home... But the one thing he still had the day I met him was hope, which is inspiring to all, for society can only move forward as a united front that has overcome the trials of addiction.

[1] http://www.usnodrugs.com/drug-addiction-statistics.htm
[2] http://www.news-medical.net/health/Dopamine-Functions.aspx
[3] http://www.cell.com/neuron/abstract/S0896-6273%2811%2900112-7

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September 25, 2011

Conclusive Evidence: Size Matters

The age old question of size has finally been answered and it turns out it does matter. If you want to be popular then being big is best, but not in the way you think. New England researchers reported in the prestigious journal Nature Neuroscience (December 26, 2010) that human amygdala size correlates with the extent and complexity of one's social life.

Using a technique from Harvard called FreeSurfer which reconstructs brain images from structural MRI scans and has the capability to overlay fMRI data, the researchers measured the sizes of multiple brain structures and cortical thicknesses of 58 adult men and women. Then they questioned the participants about their social lives, looking to find out how many regular contacts they had and also looking at how complex their social lives were, using the number of distinct social networks within the whole social life as a measure. Participants had anywhere from 4 to 50 contacts and 1 to 7 distinct networks.

They found that the amygdalas of the participants varied in size considerably with the largest being over twice the volume of the smallest. The regression coefficients they found were pretty solid at 0.38 for the relation between the number of contacts and amygdala size and 0.44 for the relation between number of networks and amygdala size. They also measured a bunch of other brain structures to check for correlations but didn't find any except for some slight matches between cortical thickness in three areas that would be expected to contribute to social competency, the anterior cingulate gyrus, for instance.

How exactly that relationship comes about is a topic for discussion. The amygdala is usually thought of as the fear center of the brain so seeing that it's correlated with a larger social network is a somewhat surprising result. Does a larger amygdala make it easier to suppress fear and so people feel less anxiety in social situations, leading to a more active social life, or is the largeness of the amygdala an indicator that a person is generally more fearful and so cleaves to their social life in an effort to buffer themselves from the fearsome natural world? The researchers believe that the larger amygdala helps people distinguish between welcoming and threatening social situations, thus leading to greater social competency and greater social capacity.

It's also possible that the amygdala has more than one distinct function. Maybe it's not just the subcortical structure that makes people feel fear but can also process social data. It would be terribly interesting to find a way to turn the activity of the amygdala down and then measure people on their ability to understand social cues or their accuracy when trying to determine whether certain social situations are dangerous or not. The connection is really very exciting and opens up a whole new area of research opportunities.

Most important of all is what it could mean for everyday life. Understanding the mechanisms that link the amygdala size to social success could highlight a set of social skills that would help people enhance their social lives. Maybe people who aren't as socially successful could improve their social lives just by paying closer attention to whether social situations present a risk, for instance.

This is exciting news that helps make steps toward simplifying the great mystery of social living, this one as simple as knowing where the danger lies as a key to success.

Posted by

Sky B. at 11:49 PM MDT

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Missed Connections

Have you ever spoken to someone who was just a little "off" and wondered if their brain was wired differently than yours? What about yourself, have you ever speculated that your own brain may have missed a few connections? While there may be some differences between how your brain functions compared to some average joe down the street, it's likely that these differences are not significant. In general most neurotypical people have similar connections between the different brain regions. One group of atypicals, however, has shown disparities in the active connections when performing various tasks. This group is composed of those with Schizophrenic symptoms.
While there have been a few studies conducted concerning the functional connections in select brain regions for Schizophrenics, there has been little conclusive evidence due to their specific nature. One study by Solomon et al. 2011, attempted to encompass all of this information by analyzing the entire brain while having groups of people perform several cognitive tests and also resting. To confirm which brain regions were activated, each subject underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging while performing these tasks. The cognitive tests performed by the subjects included n-back memory tasks along with a verb generation task. During the n-back memory task, the participants were asked to identify when an image matched one they had seen in a sequence n-number of images before. This is very similar if not identical to some training sessions in popular phone apps designed to improve cognitive function such as Memory Trainer. In the verb generation tasks, the participants were given a series of nouns and must think of a verb that corresponds with it. All participants were a mixture of male and female right handed individuals between the ages of 19 and 39 years old. Of the group of schizophrenic participants involved in cognitive testing, all were patients at the Tirat Hacarmel Mental Health Center. Each of these patients had been medicated with either haloperidol or an atypical antipsychotic drug and had been for an extended period of time.

Despite the fact that both the control and experimental (schizophrenic) groups were performing the same tasks, there were disparities between the overall brain regions excited by these tests. The brain images from the schizophrenic group were averaged along with those from the control group and compared. The resulting data shows disparities between the various groups for each task. The main regions of disparity during the n-back task were the superior frontal gyrus, central sulcus precuneus, inferior parietal lobe, inferior temporal gyrus and the fusiform gyrus. The disparity between neurotpicals and schizophrenics was even higher for the verb generation tasks and included the regions of the premotor cortex, post central sulcus and gyrus, intraparietal sulcus and the anterior cingulate gyrus. Not only does Solomon et al. show that there may be different connections in the brains of those with chronic schizophrenic episodes but they are many and varied.

Solomon et al. proves that not only is it possible to have your brain wired differently, but that it happens in real life with groups of those with atypical neuronal and psychological activity. Perhaps the next time you feel someone is a little off, remember that there is a strong possibility that their brain just uses different connections than yours.

Source:
Salomon, R., Bleich-Cohen, M., Hahamy-Dubossarsky, A., Dinstien, I., Weizman, R., Poyurovsky, M., . . . Malach, R. (2011). Global functional connectivity deficits in schizophrenia depend on behavioral state. Journal of Neuroscience, 31(36), 12972-12981. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2987-11.2011

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Rachel N. at 11:13 PM MDT

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The Neural Code for Racism

In the early ages, mankind was very segregated. There were nomads, warriors, hunters, etc. who occupied distinct geographical areas and practiced a very specific way of life. Over time, these cultures began to mesh, and today, nearly every nation is comprised of constituents hailing from all parts of the globe.

Interestingly, a recent study in Nature Neuroscience (http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v6/n12/abs/nn1156.html) indicates a neural mechanism for the integration of cultures. Specifically, Jennifer Richeson et. al conducted fMRI studies that identified regions of the brain allocated to repressing racial biases and prejudices.

Jennifer Richeson et. al designed their study to examine a previously proposed theory called "resource depletion". Prior research suggests that central executive processes are recruited "to combat the expression of stereotypes and negative attitudes that often come to mind automatically and unintentionally". The resource depletion theory postulates that the suppression of racial attitudes upon interracial contact temporarily depletes central executive control, and hence, performance on tasks requiring central executive control following interracial contact is diminished.

The study consisted of two experiments conducted on 15 Caucasian, American undergraduates. The first experiment involved individuals completing a survey on racial bias, then interacting with a black individual, and then completing an unrelated Stroop-color naming test that assesses executive control. In the second experiment, these individuals were presented with pictures of unfamiliar male black faces, and fMRI imaging was used to examine the activity of brain regions implicated in executive control during and immediately after the images were presented.

The fMRI imaging revealed heightened activity in the dorsolateral prefrontrol cortex (DLPFC) in individuals that exhibited racial biases. As expected, this increased activity in the DLPFC correlated to diminished performance on the Stroop-color naming test, indicating that executive control resources had been depleted following interracial contact. In contrast, there was no heightened activity in the DLPFC in controls (those who did not show racial biases on the initial survey), and these controls did not show diminished performance on the Stroop-color test.

The DLPFC is believed to directly influence the engagement of inhibition responses, such as suppression of racial biases. Another area of interest, the anterior cingulated cortex (ACC), is believed to sense situations/circumstances when such control is necessary. While fMRI imaging revealed increased activity of the DLPFC and ACC in racially biased individuals, only DLPFC activity correlated to diminished Stroop-color test performance. This indicates that while both areas may be important in regulating racial biases, the DLPFC region more directly affects performance on executive control tasks following interracial contact.

It is surprising that regions of the brain function to repress racial biases and stereotypes. More research is needed to identify what brain structures contribute to the development of these biases in the first place. Perhaps such research will lead to the development of drugs that promote cultural awareness and tolerance, something we could all use a dose of.

Posted by

Vivek C. at 11:05 PM MDT

Tags: attention, brain imaging, culture, fmri, tolerance

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September 18, 2011

What's in it for me??

We all may like to think we perform random acts of kindness all the time, like watching someone's laptop at the coffee shop while they step out to take a phone call. But you cannot deny that you consider how you will benefit from many of the decisions you make. Well, you are not alone, and now scientists know why. But first, in order to truly grasp the significance of this study, take a second to consider what the word "guilt" means to you. When was the last time you felt guilty? Can random strangers evoke this feeling inside you, or do your loved ones hold all the power?

Whether it is cutting someone off on the highway or having an affair that ruins a marriage or anything in between, guilt is usually a feeling we try to avoid. The article Triangulating the Neural, Psychological, and Economic Bases of Guilt Aversion defines guilt as "a negative emotional state associated with the violation of a personal moral rule or a social standard and is particularly salient when one believes they have inflicted harm, loss, or distress on a relationship partner, for example when one fails to live up to the expectations of others." Thus, the decision to watch over the laptop might not be economically rewarding, but an attempt to minimize guilt is indeed in one's best interest. This idea suggests that people do care about the payoffs of others and ultimately, a greater state of social cooperation is achieved.

A truly fascinating study utilized a formal model of this process in conjunction with fMRI, a noninvasive test that uses a strong magnetic field and radio waves to create detailed images, in this case of blood flow in the brain to detect areas of activity. The study successfully identified brain regions that mediate cooperative behavior while participants decided whether or not to honor a partner's trust. It found that "a neural system previously implicated in expectation processing plays a critical role in assessing moral sentiments that in turn can sustain human cooperation in the face of temptation." So what is the point here?

The fact that different areas of the brain were activated when participants chose to abuse trust to maximize economic self-reward rather than avoid guilt shows the importance of expectations in one's decision making. So next time someone asks you to keep an eye on their stuff, know that your insula, supplementary motor area, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and temporal parietal junction are hard at work, preventing you from feeling that pit in your stomach when the guilt creeps in.

Certainly, this breakthrough study has graced our knowledge with precious clues into the mechanisms that underlie the behaviors of trust and reciprocity. By understanding the neural circuits that underlie cooperative behavior, we are one step closer to a safe and successful society.

Resources:
Article from Neuron:
http://download.cell.com/neuron/pdf/PIIS0896627311002996.pdf?intermediate=true
How Stuff Works:
http://science.howstuffworks.com/fmri.htm

Posted by

Rebecca R. at 1:39 PM MDT

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September 12, 2011

Shamatha, Your New bff

Focus on your breathing. As thoughts and emotions come to you, simply observe without judgment and dismiss them, as if they were just passing by outside your car window. Return to the sensations of air passing in through your nostrils, down your trachea and filling your lungs...

Sound like a yoga class? Hypnosis? Close, but even better. It's a trick you can keep up your sleeve to pull out the next time your body screams "Ouch!" And it works, according to a study published in the April, 2011 issue of the Journal of Neuroscience. (https://cuvpn.colorado.edu/content/31/14/,DanaInfo=www.jneurosci.org+5540.full.pdf+html)

Researchers took 15 young healthy volunteers, and applied a painful stimulus to their calves for about 6 minutes while instructing them to simply pay "attention to breath." Brain activity was recorded using fMRI before and during the noxious stimulus. Afterwards, the subjects also rated their subjective pain intensity and pain unpleasantness on a standard visual analog scale.

Subjects were then given instruction in Shamatha, a type of "mindfulness meditation" that involves focused attention on the sensations of the breath, while disengaging from intrusive thoughts or emotions. Subjects spent merely 20 minutes a day, for 4 days, learning the technique. The fMRI sequences were then repeated, with the subjects meditating as taught during the application of noxious stimulus.

Meditation has long been thought to modify our sensory experiences, but the specific brain mechanisms were mysterious. As expected by the researchers, the subjects' ratings of pain intensity and pain unpleasantness were lower during meditation than before the training. In fact, subjects rated their pain lower by 40% and 57% respectively!

New information also emerged. Several different brain mechanisms seemed to be working at once. fMRI showed that distinct brain regions were significantly more active during meditation, some of them associated with the cognitive modulation of pain; some related to emotion regulation; some tasked with reframing the contextual evaluation of sensory events; and others involved in interoceptive awareness (attention to sensations inside the body). Additionally, some areas such as the thalamus were deactivated during meditation, acting as a sort of gatekeeper for afferent nociceptive signals.

Thanks to these brain mechanisms, you can handle the pain - if you make friends with Shamatha. For a relatively small time investment (just 20 minutes a day for 4 days), you can acquire a skill that will last you a lifetime, and hone it with practice. By extension, the pain-reducing benefits of Shamatha could be used to brave a variety of "painful" circumstances, like speaking in front of a crowd or meeting your boyfriend's parents. Further, a host of other benefits of increased interoceptive awareness await, like "trusting your gut" or knowing when you need some exercise, or knowing when you've had enough pizza.

Try it; it can't hurt.

Posted by

Amy P. at 12:43 AM MDT

Tags: alternative therapy, brain imaging, fmri, pain

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Humans may not be the only

Syntax and grammar, the fundamental rules of any language can make many school aged children emit a resounding "Ugh!" These are strict rules that we have developed over time to help keep our evolving languages in check: they tell us what order to put words in and what words are to go together. It is even possible to use the rules our own language to decipher other languages. We do this by first assessing the grammar, because humans have the ability to determine grammar despite a lack of context. This would have been essential for anyone attempting to learn a new language for the first time: recognize the patterns and go from there. For instance: in English, the verb tends to be in second position within a sentence but it can be almost anywhere; in German the verb is only in the first, second and last position within a sentence. This too can be used to study dead languages such as Mayan, which has been found to place the verb first in the sentence.
The ability to discern these patterns resides in Broca's area, or the left inferior frontal gyrus within the human brain. Studies on the analogous structures in nonhuman primates have only shown an ability to process simple sequences, failing at understanding complex language structures. It has since been thought that the comprehension of intricate communication was reserved for our own species.
One study, "Songbirds possess the spontaneous ability to discriminate syntactic rules," by Kentaro Abe and Dai Watanabe debunk this previous assumption. To show that songbirds can indeed asses the 'correctness' of a song, a mixture of both store bought Bengalese finches and those that were raised in an aviary were placed in a room with a speaker. This speaker was to play songs that the bird had been habituated to (such as those it would have learned from others of its species as it matured), along with new songs and the original with modifications to the sequence of notes. The determination of whether these sequences were discriminated against was the amount of vocalizations, with a higher number indicating a discrepancy in syntax. In both male and female finches, there was a significant increase of bird calls when specific sequences were changed against the rules of their syntax, while others did not elicit a response. This suggests that not only are certain songbirds able to listen to auditory information and glean syntactic rules but are also able to use this information when examining novel auditory information.
The faculties needed to decipher syntax seems to be a learned response, however. In birds that had been isolated from the general populous excepting for their nest mates, their ability to discriminate non-syntactically correct sequences was significantly lowered compared to controls. This was enhanced as they approached maturity, but did not improve any further while still in isolation. When these isolated birds were then moved to an aviary, they learned to distinguish correct and incorrect syntax as determined by their peers within two weeks, a blink of an eye compared to the amount of time that humans spend on learning our own syntax.
This ability shown by finches and other song birds is a complex system of communication and just may show that humans are not alone in their capacity to communicate.

Original article found at: www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v14/n8/full/nn.2869.html
-edited for punctuation-

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Rachel N. at 12:02 AM MDT

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September 11, 2011

How to be a Professional Athlete - with help from Science

As children, many of us had the elaborate dream of becoming professional athletes. We saw their glorified images painted on buildings and billboards, constantly highlighted on TV, and passionately reviewed on the front of each week's newspaper. The professional athlete was - and still is - a symbol of unprecedented talent, glory, and fame, the highest of all achievements.

Unfortunately, that dream goes unrealized for the vast majority. As the New York Times reports, the chances of becoming a professional athlete is 24,550 to 1, "so you have a better chance of getting struck by lightning, marrying a millionaire, or writing a New York Times bestseller."

But what makes becoming a professional athlete so difficult? Recent scientific research has unraveled part of the problem, reporting that the average athlete spends approximately 10,000 hours of deliberate and focused practice. To put this into perspective, imagine spending 2 hours every day practicing; at this rate, it would take 14 years of non-stop practice to reach the level of a professional.

While this task seems near impossible for the majority of us, a nascent field of neurological research is emerging that may hold the key. With the advent of novel technologies such as fMRI (first discovered in the 1990's) and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS, FDA approved in 2008), neuroscientists have been able to examine the neural circuitry of professional athlete's to understand what sets them apart on the cellular and molecular scales.

Of particular interest is a paper (http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v11/n9/abs/nn.2182.html) published in Nature Neuroscience by Salvadore Aglioti et. al, which examined the dynamics of action anticipation in elite basketball players. Specifically, elite athletes, elite coaches (who hadn't played the sport in several years), and novices (with marginal knowledge of the sport) were presented with videos of basketball players shooting free-throws at time frames varying in duration from 426 - 1,623 milliseconds, and asked to predict whether the shot was good or off target.

As expected, the elite basketball players exhibited the greatest accuracy for the full-length videos. Elite coaches performed comparably, though at a slightly lower accuracy, while novices performed poorly. But interestingly, only the elite basketball players were able to accurately predict free-throw fate for video timeframes before the ball had left the player's hand. This suggests that elite basketball players were able to recognize body kinematics (hand positioning, body posture, etc.) to anticipate the effect prior to ball release.

Previous neuroimaging studies conducted on dancers have identified heighted neural activity in the premotor and parietal cortices during performance of a dance routine. Similarly, tasks involving linking visual familiarity with motor control (such as viewing videos of dancers and identifying when they would make mistakes) resulted in activation of these areas.

Given this precedent, Salvadore Aglioti et. al conducted TMS on the corticospinal system , the principal motor system that innervates the aforementioned areas of the brain. It was discovered that maximal excitability in elite athletes occurred at the 781 ms clip, just before the ball left the player's hand, while it occurred much later for both elite coaches and novices. This suggests that elite athletes posses "extremely fine-grained perceptual operations, like early catching of erroneous or ineffective body configurations". Moreover, only elite athletes demonstrated corticospinal excitability during prediction of missed shots, while the other two groups demonstrated excitability only when predicting made shots.

This results show that elite players are finely tuned to anticipate motor-control errors. While coaches are apt at identifying good shots and correct form, elite players are further versed in anticipating wrong moves by their opponents. Mechanistically, it is proposed that this ability arises from the extensive practice that elite athletes undergo, which strengthens visual-motor synapses in the corticospinal system. As these synapses are strengthened, it takes less of a motor or visual cue to activate neurons implicated in the elite athlete's action anticipation.

If neuroscientists continue to investigate the synapses implicated in elite athletic performance, it may be possible one day to administer agonists that activate untapped reserves of athletic ability. But how ethical is "gene doping"; will it be viewed positively for its potential to elevate the quality of sports, or will it be viewed as a cheap way to avoid 10,000 hours of practice? Only time will tell.

Edited by

Don C. at 11:54 PM MDT

Comments (0)

Worth the Speed of the Silver Bullet?

Antidepressants are a part of everybody�??s life. Whether its watching multiple brands flash across the TV screen, or you personally take them, the development of effective and quick antidepressants has been the mission of many drug manufacturers in an effort to help the 17% of the population with mood disorders finally get some relief.
People with depression that choose to use medication as treatment are forced to choose between a group of relatively ineffective drugs with adverse side effects including weight gain, constipation, tremors, and many more. In the article �??Silver Bullet for The treatment for Depression?�?? (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S089662730700623X) by Ronald S. Duman, a study of the 5-HT4 receptor and depression is reviewed an analyzed for the possibility of a faster acting treatment with less side effects.
According to the article, the 5-HT reuptake inhibitors, also known as SSRIs, are the most commonly prescribed class of antidepressant on the market. Although SSRIs initially react within hours or days of a person starting the treatment, due to speculated adaptations in the pre-and post-synaptic clefts; it can take weeks or months for SSRIs to reach their full potential. According to Duman, the reason it takes so long for the drug to reach its full potential is because the treatment must first overcome the desensitization of the inhibitory 5-HT1A autoreceptor. After several weeks of treatment the 5-HT neurotransmitter will continuously fire and release.
The first initial idea came from a previous study that demonstrated that the 5-HT4 receptor agonist reached its maximal effect within three days. This means that the drug can rapidly overcome desensitization of the 5-HT1A autoreceptor. This discovery lead to a more in-depth look at the 5-HT4 receptor agonist with the hope that it could be the quick fix to depression.
Within the deeper research the 5-HT4 receptor agonist was found to have �??a rapid and robust response,�?? (Duman). Not only can this drug mimic the effects of the common SSRIs, it could do it in three days versus several weeks and magnitude was twice as strong in comparison. Beyond just the strong and rapid antidepressant response, the 5-HT4 receptor agonist quickly increases the neurogenesis in the hippocampus. While this is by no means more effective than the antidepressant effects in SSRIs, neurogenesis along with an antidepressant effect can yield to more responsive effects in less time. Also, the 5-HT4 receptor agonists can produce rapid firing and releasing for several weeks without desensitization, which is not common with other antidepressant medications.
Although these mechanism adjustments will yield faster and more successful treatment, a question for anyone starting any medication is in regard to the side effects of the medication. With SSRIs there are many adverse side effects such as: nausea, insomnia, anxiety, weight gain, tremors, sweating, sleepiness, dry mouth, and headaches. Some of these will be persistent, while others will go away within a few weeks. Despite these general side effects of all SSRIs, there are multiple brands of SSRIs. This means that the consumer has the option to pick which medication works best with their symptoms. In the 5-HT4 receptor agonist, however, some of the adverse side effects, like loss of libido, that are seen in SSRIs are speculated to not be present. More research needs to be done with regard to the specifics of the side effects. Despite most of the side effects being unknown, it is known that the 5-HT4 receptor agonist are associated with atrial arrhythmias. Also the 5-HT4-receptor agonist is used as a treatment of gastrointestinal motility, which depending on pre-existing conditions could or could not be a problem.
Although the 5-HT4 receptor agonist seems like a wonder drug, the association with atrial arrhythmias could be a worse side effect than potential for sleeping problems and low libido. However, with the potential for increased risk of suicide as seen sometimes SSRIs, the 5-HT4 agonist could be a better solution. Both SSRIs and the 5-HT4 agonist have an ability to treat depression on two different time scales. However, without more research into the exact side effects of the 5-HT4 receptor agonist, no one can make a confident call on whether this new type of treatment will actually be a better choice than the common SSRIs.

Posted by

Lauren R. at 9:09 PM MDT

Comments (0)

Can Stress Alter the Taste of Food?

When stressed, many people eat less, citing lack of time or simple forgetfulness as the reason they skip meals or eat less often when they have looming deadlines. What if, when stressed, people get less enjoyment out of their meals? Recent studies have shown that taste disturbances resulting from anxiety or depression may play a role in lower appetite. When we are anxious, we simply cannot taste food as well as we normally would.

Until the last 20 years or so, taste thresholds were thought to be invariable; genetics determined taste threshold, meaning people could range anywhere from a non-taster to a supertaster. Surprisingly, it has come to light that taste thresholds are far more plastic and variable than previously thought. In the first research studies on taste in depressed patients, it was found that depression resulted in decreased sensitivity to all tastes, but to sweet tastes in particular. Those with panic disorder and average people with induced stress tend to be more sensitive to bitter tastes. These taste disturbances seem to be linked to alterations in serotonin (5-HT) and noradrenaline (NA). 5-HT and NA alter ion channel function, resulting in a change in the excitability of taste cells. As a result of this research, in a 2006 study, Heath et al focused on 5-HT and NA in an attempt to determine the link between these monoamines, mood, and taste.

Heath et al studied taste responses to sweet, bitter, salt, or sour tastes in subjects who had no previous history of depression or anxiety and who were not using psychotrophic medication. Taste perception was measured before and after administration of a 5-HT reuptake inhibitor (SSRI, a common ingredient in antidepressant and anti-anxiety medications), a NA reuptake inhibitor (NARI, which treats depression), or a placebo (lactose). Findings indicated that SSRIs significantly increased bitter and sweet taste sensitivity (i.e. these taste thresholds were reduced), while NARIs increased bitter and sour taste sensitivities. Interestingly, neither drug affected salt taste.

So how exactly can SSRIs and NARIs modulate taste? In an earlier model, part of the mechanism was proposed, with additions by Heath et al. First, receptor cells release ATP (which can function as neurotransmitter) as a result of increased intracellular calcium. Next, ATP activates receptors on presynaptic cells, causing an increase of calcium in presynaptic cells, followed by 5-HT release. Heath et al further suggest that serotonergic feedback from presynaptic cells to receptor cells occurs. The 5-HT released from presynaptic cells binds to receptors on the receptor cells, exerting its effects by volume transmission. SSRI administration blocks 5-HT transporters on both receptor and presynaptic cells and enhances 5-HT signaling, and therefore enhances bitter and sweet tastes. On the other hand, NA can act either as a transmitter released onto gustatory afferent axons or by modulating the action of ATP.

In addition to taste perception due to monoamine manipulation, Heath et al studied the relationship between taste and mood. Although all subjects were in the clinically healthy range for Spielberger State and Trait questionnaire (which represent anxiety levels) and Beck's Depression Inventory, some subjects scored on the high range of the Spielberger Trait questionnaire, meaning that they had higher anxiety levels than the other subjects. The more anxious subjects had lower taste sensitivities to bitter and salt tastes. All patients scored very low on depression, so a relationship between depression and taste perception could not be determined. Since 5-HT or NA manipulations do not alter salt thresholds, this effect would need to be studied further.

The next time you get stressed out, think about whether your food seems to taste different than it normally does.

Main article: http://www.jneurosci.org/content/26/49/12664.full.pdf+html

Posted by

Alyssa F. at 5:33 PM MDT

Tags: anxiety, depression, taste

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August 7, 2011

Muscle fatigue and cognition ...Are they related?

You just finished your 30 mile bike ride or just finished that triathlon you always wanted in great time.. Now your exhausted�?� now what why can�??t you finish your thought? Is it possible that the muscle fatigued you experiences can impacted you mentally? Studies indicate that the mental and actual movements share overlapping neural substrates (Jeannerod, 2001; Fadiga and Craighero, 2004; Munzert et al., 2009) and preserve the same spatiotemporal characteristics according to Demougeot. Demougeot suggested that if the two components are related that one will have to mentally prepare or exercise the mind to have optimal performance. ..�??Appropriate mental training can enhance motor performance.�?? Demougeot seek to find the answer to have much physically activity or muscle fatigue will start to have an effect on the mental stabilization of one�??s cognitions? In their study they measured the temporal features of actual and mental movements before and after muscle fatigue�?� �??A strong prediction is that duration of mental actions should be sensitive to muscle fatigue, because the forward model receives as input the efferent copy of inappropriate motor commands and the perturbed state of the arm, both caused by muscle fatigue.�??

To conduct their study they used seventeen adults who were all health with no neurological problems who they used as participates. The participates then were asked to move their arms, physically and then mentally at different angles in a conducted sequence. They then tested the participate before and after the muscle fatigue.

They discovered that muscle fatigue significantly influenced the mental aspect of the experiment. Demougeot discovered that muscle fatigue significantly influenced alterations in the signaling used in mental cognition. They also discovered actual movements were in general slower immediately after fatigue, but progressively returned to prefatigue values. When applied to their study they discovered that mental movements were faster immediately after fatigue and gradually returned to prefatigue values. Demougeot studied the motor effent outflow signals to justify their thesis and this is what the concluded �??However, its efferent copy is available to the forward model, which naturally predicts very fast movements. Since during mental movements there is not sensory information, and state estimation derives from forward model alone, the brain continues to simulate faster mental movements after fatigue based on inappropriate (large) neural drives. This explains why mental movements were consistently faster than actual movements after fatigue, at least until their complete adaptation. This process, i.e., state estimation without sensory feedback, also explains the slower update of motor controller (i.e., motor commands) during mental compared to actual movements after fatigue. �??

Though neuroimaging Demougeot discovered that muscle fatigue can greatly impact one�??s ability to mentally function as proven above. One can also conclude that next time you stay up to study all night for an exam (muscle fatigue) that it could be detrimental to our test grade. Demougeot proved that muscle fatigue influences motor performance and action planning. It�??s no longer enough for physically training but mentally training is required now too.

To read full article please follow https://cuvpn.colorado.edu/content/31/29/,DanaInfo=www.jneurosci.org+10712.full

Posted by

MEGAN S. at 10:10 PM MDT

Tags: brain imaging, memory, metabolic processes, neuroscience

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The WWW and Science

The World Wide Web recently celebrated its 20th birthday, and what a lot of growing up it has done! August 6, 2011 marked the 20th anniversary of the launch of the very first web page by Tim Berners-Lee. On it he wrote,? The WWW project was started to allow high energy physicists to share data, news, and documentation. We are very interested in spreading the web to other areas, and having gateway servers for other data. Collaborators welcome.? So think about that for a minute. The World Wide Web was invented so that scientists could collaborate. 20 years on how are we doing?

Today most traditionally published journals have websites and are available in electronic format. There are numerous open access publications such as PloS Biology that are web based and free to peruse. Scientific information is available in all manner of places. There are dedicated search engines such as Scirus as well as huge public databases for research such as PubMed. The scientific community hasn?t done a bad job using the WWW as a new platform for publishing, but what about that last sentiment ?Collaborators welcome,?? Berners-Lee was seeking the input and help of people who he was now connected to by computer. The WWW was a new way to connect and share. It grew because people from across the globe recognized its potential and worked together to make it what it is today: a network linking billions of people and their ideas. While journals are more than happy to use the web as a new platform to publish, scientists still have not fully embraced the notion that the web is also a great tool for collaboration. However, several innovations give me hope that someday researchers will reap the full benefits of the WWW.

For instance, the site Nature Precedings is a preprint repository for the Earth sciences that allows researchers to submit papers and receive feedback in the form of comments and votes to help improve the quality of the work. Not only is this site a permanent citeable archive, it is also a place where researchers are able to go to discuss their work and others?. This type of collaboration is no doubt something Tim Berners-Lee would approve of.

Another great thing about the World Wide Web regarding science, is that now research is available in so many different formats that anyone can keep up on the latest science news. The primary literature is good for some, but even people with no science background can enjoy and learn from a post on Neuroscience News, or any number of well written and entertaining science blogs. I feel that science often gets a bad rap for being tedious and difficult to understand, but the web has done so much to dispel that myth and show people how wonderful, fun, and important science really is. So Happy Birthday WWW! You?re doing a great job. Keep it up.

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Claire O. at 8:04 PM MDT

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